Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mother’s stress, mood and emotional involvement with the infant: 3 months before and 3 months after childbirth

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
Archives of Women's Mental Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Adverse effects of maternal anxiety and depression are well documented, namely on the foetus/child behaviour and development, but not as much attention has been given to the mother’s emotional involvement with the offspring. To study mother’s prenatal and postpartum stress, mood and emotional involvement with the infant, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale were filled in and cortisol levels were measured, 3 months before and 3 months after childbirth, in a sample of 91 Portuguese women. From pregnancy to the postpartum period, mother’s cortisol levels, anxiety and emotional involvement toward the child decrease. No significant change was observed regarding mother’s depression. Mother’s depression predicted a worse emotional involvement before childbirth, while mother’s anxiety predicted a worse emotional involvement with the infant after childbirth. Additionally, pregnant women with a worse emotional involvement with the offspring are at risk of poorer emotional involvement with the infant and higher anxiety and depression at 3 months postpartum. It should be given more attention to mother’s poor emotional involvement with the offspring during pregnancy, as it interferes with her emotional involvement with the infant and her psychological adjustment 3 months after childbirth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ammaniti M (1991) Maternal representations during pregnancy and early infant–mother interactions. Infant Ment Health J 12(3):246–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson L, Sundström-Poromaa I, Wulff M (2006) Depression and anxiety during pregnancy and six months postpartum, a follow-up study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 85(8):937–944

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Areias ME, Kumar R, Barros H (1996a) Correlates of postnatal depression in mothers and fathers. Br J Psychiatry 169(1):36–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Areias ME, Kumar R, Barros H (1996b) Comparative incidence of depression in women and men, during pregnancy and after childbirth. Validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in Portuguese mothers. Br J Psychiatry 169(1):30–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Augusto A, Kumar R, Calheiros JM (1996) Post-natal depression in an urban area of Portugal: comparison of childbearing women and matches controls. Psychol Med 26:135–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Austin MP, Tully L, Parker G (2007) Examining the relationship between antenatal anxiety and postnatal depression. J Affect Disord 101(1–3):169–174

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biaggio AM, Natalicio L, Spielberger CD (1976) The development and validation of an experimental Portuguese form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In: Spielberger CD, Dias-Guerrero (eds) Cross-cultural research on anxiety. Hemisphere/Wiley, Washington, DC, pp 29–40

  • Bloom KC (1995) The development of attachment behaviors in pregnant adolescents. Nurs Res 44(5):284–289

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby J (1958) The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. Int J Psychoanal 39:350–373

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Britton J (2005) Pre-discharge anxiety among mothers of well newborns: prevalence and correlates. Acta Paediatr 94(12):1771–1776

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buist A, Morse C, Durkin S (2003) Men’s adjustment to fatherhood: implications for obstetric health care. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 32(2):172–180

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caccia N, Johnson JM, Robinson GE (1991) Impact of prenatal testing on maternal–fetal bonding, chorionic villus sampling versus amniocentesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 16:1122–1125

    Google Scholar 

  • Chee CY, Lee DT, Chong YL (2005) Confinement and other psychosocial factors in perinatal depression: a transcultural study in Singapore. J Affect Disord 89(1–3):157–166

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan CP, Cowan PA (2000) Preventive intervention: a couple perspective on the transmission of attachment patterns. In: Clulow C (ed) Adult attachment and couple psychotherapy: the secure base in practice and research. Brunner-Routledge, London, pp 62–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R (1987) Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh postnatal depression scale. Br J Psychiatry 150:782–786

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cranley MS (1981) Development of a tool for the measurement of maternal attachment during pregnancy. Nurs Res 30:281–284

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diego M, Jones NA, Field T (2006) Prenatal cortisol mediates the effects of maternal psychological distress on fetal weight. Psychosom Med 68:747–753

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietz PM, Williams SB, Callaghan WM (2007) Clinically identified maternal depression before, during, and after pregnancies ending in live births. Am J Psychiatry 164:1515–1520

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiPietro JA, Hilton SC, Hawkins M (2002) Maternal stress and affect influence fetal neurobehavioral development. Dev Psychol 38(5):659–668

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eberhard-Gran M, Tambs K, Opjordsmoen S (2003) A comparison of anxiety and depressive symptomatology in postpartum and non-postpartum mothers. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 38(10):551–556

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eberhard-Gran M, Tambs K, Opjordsmoen S (2004) Depression during pregnancy and after delivery: a repeated measurement study. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 25(1):15–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edhborg M, Matthiesen AS, Lundh W (2005) Some early indicators for depressive symptoms and bonding 2 months postpartum—a study of new mothers and fathers. Arch Womens Ment Health 8(4):221–231

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ekelin M, Crang-Svalenius E, Dykes AK (2004) A qualitative study of mothers’ and fathers’ experiences of routine ultrasound examination in Sweden. Midwifery 20(4):335–344

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman R, Weller A, Leckman JF (1999) The nature of the mother’s tie to her infant, maternal bonding under conditions of proximity, separation and potential loss. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 406:929–939

    Google Scholar 

  • Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M (2003) Pregnancy anxiety and comorbid depression and anger effects on the fetus and neonate. Depress Anxiety 17:140–151

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field T, Diego M, Dieter J (2004) Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and neonate. Infant Behav Dev 27:216–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Diego M (2006) Prenatal cortisol, prematurity and low birthweight. Infant Behav Dev 29:268–275

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M (2008) Chronic prenatal depression and neonatal outcome. Int J Neurosci 118(1):95–103

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Marques A, Costa R (2005) Bonding: escala para avaliar o envolvimento emocional dos pais com o bebé. Psychologica 40:133–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Bifulco A, Pacheco A (2006) Teenage pregnancy, attachment style and depression: a comparison of teenage and adult pregnant women in a Portuguese series. Attach Hum Dev 8(2):123–138

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Costa R, Pacheco A (2007a) Anxiété, dépression et investissement émotionnel de l’enfant pendant la grossesse. Devenir 19(3):243–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Costa R, Pacheco A (2007b) Mother-to-infant and father-to-infant initial emotional involvement. Early Child Dev Care 177(5):521–532

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Pacheco A, Costa R (2007c) Depression during pregnancy and the postpartum period in adolescent and adult Portuguese mothers. Arch Womens Ment Health 10(3):103–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Field T, Diego M (2008) Partner relationships during the transition to parenthood. J Reprod Infant Psychol 26(2):99–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo B, Costa R, Pacheco A et al (2009) Mother-to-infant emotional involvement at birth. Matern Child Health J 13 (3): in press

  • Fleming AS, Corter CM (1988) Factors influencing maternal responsiveness in humans: usefulness of an animal model. Psychoendocrinology 13:189–212

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming AS, Ruble D, Krieger H (1997a) Hormonal and experiential correlates of maternal responsiveness during pregnancy and the puerperium in human mothers. Horm Behav 31(2):145–58

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming AS, Steiner M, Corter CM (1997b) Cortisol, hedonics, and maternal responsiveness in human mothers. Horm Behav 32(2):85–98

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez A, Jenkins JM, Steiner M, Fleming AS (2009) The relation between early life adversity, cortisol awakening response and diurnal salivary cortisol levels in postpartum women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34(1):76–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller SG, Moore LR, Lester JW (1993) Influence of family functioning on maternal–fetal attachment. J Perinatol 13(6):453–460

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia J, Bricker L, Menderson J (2002) Women’s views of pregnancy ultrasound: a systematic review. Birth 29(4):225–250

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giardino J, Gonzalez A, Steiner M (2008) Effects of motherhood on physiological and subjective responses to infant cries in teenage mothers: a comparison with non-mothers and adult mothers. Horm Behav 53:149–158

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman L, O’Hara M, Figueiredo B (2004) Adaptation of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV disorder for assessing depression in women during pregnancy and postpartum across countries and cultures. Br J Psychiatry 184(suppl.46):18–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace JT (1989) Development of maternal–fetal attachment during pregnancy. Nurs Res 38(4):228–232

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heidrich SM, Cranley MS (1989) Effect of fetal movement, ultrasound scans, and amniocentesis on maternal–fetal attachment. Nurs Res 38(2):81–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heron J, O’Connor T, Evans J (2004) The course of anxiety and depression through pregnancy and the postpartum in a community sample. J Affect Disord 80(1):65–73

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honjo S, Arai S, Kaneko H (2003) Antenatal depression and maternal–fetal attachment. Psychopathology 36(6):304–311

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu TL, Chen CH (2001) Stress and maternal–fetal attachment of pregnant women during their third trimester. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 17(1):36–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ji E, Pretorious DM, Newton R (2005) Effects of ultrasound on maternal–fetal bonding: a comparison of two- and three dimensional imaging. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 25:473–477

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kammerer M, Taylor A, Glover V (2006) The HPA axis and perinatal depression: a hypothesis. Arch Womens Ment Health 9(4):187–196

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kemp V, Sibley D, Pond E (1990) A comparison of adolescent and adult mothers on factors affecting maternal role attainment. Matern Child Nurs J 19(1):579–584

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaus M, Kennel J (1976) Maternal–infant bonding. C.V. Mosby, Saint Louis

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaus MH, Kennell JH, Klaus PH (1995) Bonding: building the foundations of secure attachment and independence. Addison-Wesley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinveld JH, Timmermans DR, de Smit DJ, Adér HJ, van der Wal G, ten Kate LP (2006) Does prenatal screening influence anxiety levels of pregnant women? A longitudinal randomised controlled trial. Prenat Diagn 26(4):354–361

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinveld JH, Timmermans DR, van den Berg M, van Eijk JT, Ten Kate LP (2007) Does offering and performing prenatal screening influence women’s attachment to their unborn child? A longitudinal randomized controlled trial. Prenat Diagn 27(8):757–764

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohn CL, Nelson A, Weiner S (1980) Gravidas’ responses to realtime ultrasound fetal image. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 9(2):77–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalcek I, Huber G, Bieniakiewitz I (2003) The influence of gestational age on depressive reactions, stress and anxiety of pregnant women and their partners in relation to prenatal diagnosis. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 24(4):239–245

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson KL, Turriff-Jonasson SI (2006) Maternal serum screening and psychosocial attachment to pregnancy. J Psychosom Res 60(4):371–378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee AM, Lam SK, Sze Mun Lau SM et al (2007) Prevalence, course, and risk factors for antenatal anxiety and depression. Obstet Gynecol 110:1102–1112

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Limlomwongse N, Liabsuetrakul T (2006) Cohort study of depressive moods in Thai women during late pregnancy and 6–8 weeks of postpartum using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Arch Womens Ment Health 9(3):131–138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindgren K (2003) A comparison of pregnancy health practices of women in inner-city and small urban communities. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 32(3):313–321

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovisi GM, Lopez JR, Coutinho ES (2005) Poverty, violence and depression during pregnancy, a survey of mothers attending a public hospital in Brazil. Psychol Med 35(10):1485–1492

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus SM, Flynn HA, Blow FC (2003) Depressive symptoms among pregnant women screened in obstetrics settings. J Womens Health 12(4):373–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthey S, Barnett B, Howie P (2003) Diagnosing postpartum depression in mothers and fathers: whatever happened to anxiety. J Affect Disord 74(2):139–147

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Möhler E, Brunner R, Wiebel A (2006) Maternal depressive symptoms in the postnatal period are associated with long-term impairment of mother–child bonding. Arch Womens Ment Health 9(5):273–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Monk C, Fifer WP, Sloan RP (2000) Maternal stress responses and anxiety during pregnancy: effects on fetal heart rate. Dev Psychobiol 36:67–77

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nagata M, Nagai Y, Sobajima H (2003) Depression in the mother and maternal attachment—results from a follow-up study at 1 year postpartum. Psychopathology 36(3):142–151

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newton N, Newton M (1962) Mothers’ reactions to their newborn babies. JAMA 21(181):206–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson W, Setse R, Hill-Briggs F (2006) Depressive symptoms and health-related quality of life in early pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 107:798–806

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nierop A, Bratsikas A, Zimmermann R (2006) Are stress-induced cortisol changes during pregnancy associated with postpartum depressive symptoms. Psychosom Med 68(6):931–937

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Obel C, Hedegaard M, Henriksen TB (2005) Stress and salivary cortisol during pregnancy. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30(7):647–656

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pajulo M, Savonlahti E, Sourander A (2001) Antenatal depression, substance dependency and social support. J Affect Disord 65:9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pawlby S, Sharp D, Hay D (2008) Postnatal depression and child outcome at 11 years: the importance of accurate diagnosis. J Affect Disord 107(1–3):241–245

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perren S, Wyl A, Bürgin D (2005) Intergenerational transmission of marital quality across the transition to parenthood. Fam Process 44(4):441–459

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reading AE, Cox DN, Sledmere CM (1984) Psychological changes over the course of pregnancy: a study of attitudes toward the fetus/neonate. Health Psychol 3(3):211–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reck C, Klier CM, Pabst K (2006) Mother–infant bonding disorders in patients with postnatal depression: the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire in clinical practice. Arch Womens Ment Health 9(5):289–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Rich-Edwards JW, Kleinman K, Abrams A (2006) Sociodemographic predictors of antenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms among women in a medical group practice. J Epidemiol Community Health 60:221–227

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Righetti PL, Dell’Avanzo M, Grigio M (2005) Maternal/paternal antenatal attachment and fourth-dimensional ultrasound technique, a preliminary report. Br J Psychiatry 96:129–137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rizk DE, Nasse M, Thomas L (2001) Women’s perceptions and experiences of childbirth in United Arab Emirates. J Perinat Med 29(4):298–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robson KS, Kumar R (1980) Delayed onset of maternal affection after childbirth. Br J Psychiatry 136:347–353

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rondo PH, Ferreira RF, Nogueira F (2003) Maternal psychological stress and distress as predictors of low birth weight, prematurity and intrauterine growth retardation. Eur J Clin Nutr 57(2):266–272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross LE, McLean LM (2006) Anxiety disorders during pregnancy and the postpartum period: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry 67(8):1285–1298

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross LE, Gilbert Evans SE (2003) Measurement issues in postpartum depression part 1, anxiety as a feature of postpartum depression. Arch Womens Ment Health 6(1):51–57

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross LE, Sellers EM, Gilbert Evans SE (2004) Mood changes during pregnancy and the postpartum period: development of a biopsychosocial model. Acta Psychiatr Scand 109(6):457–466

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin R (1984) Maternal identity and the maternal experience. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Rustico MA, Mastromatteo C, Grigio M (2005) Two-dimensional vs. two- plus four-dimensional ultrasound in pregnancy and the effect on maternal emotional status, a randomized study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 25:468–472

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury A, Yanni P, Bocanegra M (2003) Fetal behavioral reactivity and depressed maternal mood. Arch Womens Ment Health 6(suppl.1):s1–s28

    Google Scholar 

  • Segdmen B, McMahon C, Cairns D (2006) The impact of two-dimensional vs three-dimensional ultrasound exposure on maternal–fetal attachment and maternal health behavior in pregnancy. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 27:245–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea AK, Streiner DL, Fleming A (2007) The effect of depression, anxiety and early life trauma on the cortisol awakening response during pregnancy: preliminary results. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32(8–10):1013–1020

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shieh C, Kravitz M, Wang H (2001) What do we know about maternal–fetal attachment. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 17:448–454

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shin H, Park Y, Kim MJ (2006) Predictors of maternal sensitivity during the early postpartum period. J Adv Nurs 55(4):425–434

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skari H, Skreden M, Malt UF (2002) Comparative levels of psychological distress, stress symptoms, depression and anxiety after childbirth—a population-based study. I Br J Obstet Gynaecol 109(10):1154–1163

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberg C, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE (1970) The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern D (1995) The motherhood constellation. Harper Collins, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Storey AE, Walsh CJ, Quinton RL (2000) Hormonal correlates of paternal responsiveness in new and expectant fathers. Evol Hum Behav 21(2):79–95

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutter-Dallay AL, Giaconne-Marcesche V, Glatigny-Dallay E (2004) Women with anxiety disorders during pregnancy are at increased risk of intense postnatal depressive symptoms, a prospective survey of the MATQUID cohort. Eur Psychiatry 19(8):459–463

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor A, Atkins R, Kumar R (2005) Mother-to-infant bonding scale: links with early maternal mood. Arch Womens Ment Health 81:45–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bergh B, Marcoen A (2004) High antenatal maternal anxiety is related to ADHD symptoms, externalizing problems, and anxiety in 8- and 9-year-olds. Child Dev 75(4):1085–1097

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bergh B, Mennes M, Oosterlaan J (2005) High antenatal maternal anxiety is related to impulsivity during performance on cognitive tasks in 14- and 15-year-olds. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 29(2):259–269

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weerth C, Buitelaar JK (2005) Cortisol awakening response in pregnant women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30:902–907

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wenzel A, Haugen EN, Jackson LC (2005) Anxiety disorders at eight weeks postpartum. J Anxiety Disord 19:295–311

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westdahl C, Milan S, Magriples U (2007) Social support and social conflict as predictors of prenatal depression. Obstetrics Gynecology 110(1):134–140

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiberg B, Humble K, de Château P (1989) Long-term effect on mother–infant behaviour of extra contact during the first hour post partum. V Follow-up at three years. Scand J Soc Med 17:181–191

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu JM, Viguera A, Riley L (2002) Mood disturbance during pregnancy is not associated with mode of delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 187:864

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zachariah R (1994) Maternal–fetal attachment: influence of mother–daughter and husband–wife relationships. Res Nurs Health 17:37–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zlotogorski Z, Tadmor O, Duniec E (1995) Anxiety levels of pregnant women during ultrasound examination, coping styles, amount of feedback and learned resourcefulness. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 6:425–429

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Human Development and Health Service of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Ref. 48914), the Bial Foundation (Ref. 58/02) and all the mothers that participated in this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Minho University, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal

    Barbara Figueiredo & Raquel Costa

Authors
  1. Barbara Figueiredo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Raquel Costa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Barbara Figueiredo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Figueiredo, B., Costa, R. Mother’s stress, mood and emotional involvement with the infant: 3 months before and 3 months after childbirth. Arch Womens Ment Health 12, 143–153 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-009-0059-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-009-0059-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation