Abstract
Dysexecutive functioning, which is described as an enduring core feature of schizophrenia, has been associated with gait disorders. However, few studies have reported gait disorders in schizophrenia patients. The objective of this study was to examine the association between executive dysfunction and gait performance in recent-onset schizophrenia patients using the dual task paradigm. Thirty-two subjects participated to the study: 17 with recent-onset schizophrenia and 15 healthy age-matched controls. Executive functions were evaluated using the Frontal Assessment Battery, Stroop and Trail-Making tests. Mean values and coefficients of variation (CV) of the temporal gait parameters while single tasking (just walking) and while dual tasking (walking and forward counting, walking and backward counting, walking and verbal fluency) were measured using the SMTEC®-footswitch system. We focused on the CV of stride time as this measure has been shown to be the most representative parameter of higher gait control. A strong effect of the stride time was found in the group factor for the verbal fluency dual-task when compared to controls (Cohen’s d mean = 1.28 and CV = 1.05). The effect was lower in the other dual tasks, and insignificant in the single task of walking. This study shows that patients exhibit higher stride-to-stride variability while dual tasking than controls. It also shows a stronger impact of verbal fluency on gait regularity compared to the other dual tasks revealing a relationship between the executive dysfunction and gait modification. Those results are in line with the idea that schizophrenia implies not only cognitive but also motor functioning and coordination impairment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allali G, Kressig RW, Assal E, Herrmann FR, Beauchet O (2005) A Dual-task related stride time variability among demented older adults with dysexecutive functions. Gait Posture 21(1):S51
Allali G, Kressig R, Assal F, Herrmann F, Dubost V, Beauchet O (2007) Changes in gait while backward counting in demented older adults with frontal lobe dysfunction. Gait Posture 26:572–576
Allali G, Dubois B, Assal F, Lallart E, de Souza LC, Bertoux M, Annweiler C, Herrmann FR, Levy R, Beauchet O (2010) Frontotemporal dementia: pathology of gait? Mov Disord 25(6):723–729
Amboni M, Cozzolino A, Longo K, Picillo M, Barone P (2008) Freezing of gait and executive functions in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 23(3):395–400
Bakker M, De Lange FP, Helmich RC, Scheeringa R, Bloem BR, Toni I (2008) Cerebral correlates of motor imagery of normal and precision gait. Neuroimage 41:998–1010
Beauchet O, Allali G, Berrut G, Hommet C, Dubost V, Assal F (2008a) Gait analysis in demented subjects: interest and perspectives. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 4:155–160
Beauchet O, Herrmann F, Grandjean R, Dubost V, Allali G (2008b) Concurrent validity of SMTEC footswitches system for the measurement of temporal gait parameters. Gait Posture 27:156–159
Bersani G, Quartini A, Paolemili M, Clemente R, Iannitelli A, Di Biasi C, Gualdi G (2011) Neurological soft signs and corpus callosum morphology in schizophrenia. Neurosci Lett 499:170–174
Birn RM, Kenworthly L, Case L, Caravella R, Jones TB, Bandettini PA, Martin A (2010) Neural systems supporting lexical search gided by letter and semantic category cues: a self-paced overt response fMRI study of verbal fluency. Neuroimage 49:1099–1107
Bleuler E (1911) Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. International Press Universities, New York
Bozikas V, Kosmidis M, Karavatos A (2005) Disproportionate impairment in semantic verbal fluency in schizophrenia: differential deficit in clustering. Schizophr Res 74(205):51–59
Chan R, Chen E, Law C (2006) Specific executive dysfunction in patients with first-episode medication-naïve schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 82(1):51–64
Chan RC, Xu TR, Heinrichs W, Yue WY, Wang Y (2009) Neurological Soft Signs in Schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 36(6):1089–1104
Collie A, Darekar A, Maruff P, Snyder P, Huggins JP (2006) Cognitive testing in early-phase clinical trials: development of a rapid computerized test battery and application in a simulated Phase I study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 16(4):S274–S275
Delval A, Krystkowiak P, Delliaux M, Blatt JL, Derambure P, Destée A, Defebvre L (2008) Effect of external cueing on gait in Huntington’s disease. Mov Disord 23(10):1446–1452
Dubois B, Slachevsky A, Litvan I, Pillon B (2000) The FAB: a frontal assessment battery at bedside. Neurology 55:1621–1626
Elvevag B, Weinstock D, Akil M, Kleinman JE, Goldberg T (2001) A comparison of verbal tasks in schizophrenic patients and normal controls. Schizophr Res 51:119–126
First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JBW (1996) Structured clinical interview for the DSM-IV axis I disorders, Clinical version (SCID-CV). American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC
Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR (1975) “Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12:189–198
Gazzaley A, D’Esposito M (2006) Neural networks: an empirical neuroscience approach toward understanding cognition. Cortex 42:1037–1040
Gupta S, Andreasen N, Arndt S, Flaum M, Schults S, Hubbard W, Smith M (1995) Neurological soft signs in neuroleptic-naïve and neuroleptic-treated schizophrenic patients and in normal comparaison subjects. Am J Psychiatry 152:191–196
Harada T, Miyai I, Suzuki M, Kubota K (2009) Gait capacity affects cortical activation patterns related to Speedy control in the elderly. Exp Brain Res 193:445–454
Harvey PD, Bowe CR, Loebel A, Warrington L (2004) Cognitive improvement andneuropsychological normalization with ziprasidone or olanzapine: results of a 6-month study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 14(3):S294
Hausdorff J, Yogev G, Springer S, Simon E, Giladi N (2005) Walking is more like catching than tapping: gait in the elderly as complex cognitive task. Exp Brain Res 164:541–548
Hirjak D, Wolf R, Stieltjes B, Hauser T, Seidl U, Thiermann U, Schröder J, Thomann P (2013) Neurological soft signs and brainstem morphology in frist-episode schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology 68(2):91–99
Iseki K, Hanakawa T, Shinozaki J, Nankaku M, Fukuyama H (2008) Neural mechanisms involved in mental imagery and observation of gait. Neuroimage 41:1021–1031
Kasparek T, Rehulova J, Kerkovsky M, Sprlakova A, Mechl M, Mikl M (2012) Cortico-cerebellar functional connectivity and sequencing of movements in schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 12:12–17
Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA (1987) The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 13:261–276
Lallart E, Jouvent R, Herrmann F, Beauchet O, Allali G (2012) Gait and motor imagery of gate in early schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 198(3):366–370
Lecrubier Y, Sheehan D, Weiller E (1997) The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I): a short diagnostic structured interview: reliability and validity according to the CIDI. Eur Psychiatry 12:224–231
Lemke M, Wendorff T, Mieth B, Buhl K, Linnemann M (2000) Spatiotemporal gait patterns during over ground locomotion in major depression compared with healthy controls. J Psychiatr Res 34(4–5):277–283
Lepow L, Van Sweringen J, Strutt AM, Jawaid A, Macadam C, Harati Y, Schulz PE, York MK (2010) Frontal and temporal lobe involvement on verbal fluency measures in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 13:1–10
Putzhammer A, Heindl B, Broll K, Pfeiff L, Perfahl M, Hajak G (2004) Spatial and temporal parameters of gait disturbances in schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 69(2–3):159–166
Royer A, Christian F, Schneider G, Grosselin A, Pellet J, Barral F, Laurent B, Brouillet D, Lang F (2009) Brain activation during executive process in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res: Neuroimaging 173(3):170–176
Ruff RM, Light RH, Parker SB, Levin HS (1997) The psychological construct of word fluency. Brain Lang 57:394–405
Saykin AJ, Shtasel DL, Gur RE, Kester DB, Mozley LH, Stafiniak P, Gur RC (1994) Neurpsychological deficits in neuroleptic naïve patients with first episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(2):124–131
Shallice T, Burgess P, Schon F, Baxter D (1989) The origins of utilization behavior. Brain 112:1587–1598
Sheridan PL, Solomont J, Kowall N, Hausdorff JM (2003) Influence of executive function on locomotor function: divided attention increases gait variability in Alzheimer’s disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 51:1633–1637
Strauss E, Sherman E, Spreem O (2006) A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms and commentary, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York
Stroop JR (1935) Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol 18:643–662
Suzuki M, Miyai I, Ono T, Oda I, Konishi I, Kochiyama T, Kubota K (2004) Prefrontal and premotor cortices are involved in adapting walking and running speed on the treadmill: an optical imaging study. Neuroimage 23:1020–1026
Townsend LA, Malla AK, Norman MG (2001) Cognitive functioning in stabilized first-episode psychosis patients. Psychiatry Res 104:119–131
U.S. War Department AGsO (1944) The new army individual test of general mental ability. Psych Bull 41:532–538
Van Beilen M, Pijnenborg M, van Zomeren E, van den Bosch R, Withaar F, Boumac A (2004) What is measured by verbal fluency tests in schizophrenia? Schizophr Res 69(2–3):267–276
Van der Meulen M, Allali G, Rieger S, Assal F, Vuilleumier P (2012) The influence of individual motor imagery ability on cerebral recruitment during gait imagery. Hum Brain Mapp. doi:10.1002/hbm.22192
Wang J, Wai Y, Weng Y, Ng K, Huang Y, Ying L, Liu H, Wang C (2009) Functional MRI in the assessment of cortical activation during gait-related imaginary tasks. J Neural Transm 116:1087–1092
Yogev G, Giladi N, Peretz C, Springer S, Simon ES, Hausdorff JM (2005) Dual tasking, gait rhythmicity, and Parkinson’s disease: which aspects of gait are attention demanding? Eur J Neurosci 22(5):1248–1256
Zhao Q, Li Z, Huang J, Yan C, Dazzan P, Pantelis C, Cheung E, Lui S, Chan R (2013) Neurological soft signs are not “soft” in brain structure and functional networks: evidence from ALE meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lallart, E., Jouvent, R., Herrmann, F.R. et al. Gait control and executive dysfunction in early schizophrenia. J Neural Transm 121, 443–450 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-013-1111-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-013-1111-0