Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Long-distance, low-frequency elephant communication

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Comparative Physiology A Aims and scope Submit manuscript

An Erratum to this article was published on 03 February 2005

Abstract

The production, transmission, and reception of and the behavioral response to long-distance, low-frequency sound by elephants is reviewed. The structure of low-frequency calls generated by elephants is separated into the “source” and the “filter” roles played by the lungs, larynx and vocal track, the composition of the expired air and the ambient air temperature. Implications regarding the size, age, sex, sexual and physical status follow from the call structure and detection. Reception of the signal is discussed in terms of the characteristics of the elephant’s ear with particular attention to the determination of the threshold of hearing and the ability to locate the source of low-frequency sounds. Factors which influence the transmission of near infrasound are related to atmospheric structure. The critical role played by the thermal stratification and vertical gradient and magnitude of the wind in determining both the range and the detection of a signal are discussed for open and closed elephant habitats. Infrasound plays a pervasive role in reproduction, resource utilization, avoidance of predation and other social interactions. Current and future technology can be expected to contribute to the detection and interpretation of elephant communication. This will aid in the understanding of behavior and in efforts to sustain the species.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Altmann SA (1967) The structure of primate social communication. In: Altmann SA (ed) Social communication among primates. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp. 325–362

    Google Scholar 

  • AMS (American Meteorological Society) (2000) Glossary of meteorology, Boston, p 820

  • Bass HE, Sutherland IC, Zuckerwar AJ (1990) Atmospheric absorption of sound: update. J Acoust Soc Am 88:2019–2020

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedard AJ Jr, Georges TM (2000) Atmospheric infrasound. Phys Today 53:32–37

    Google Scholar 

  • von Békésy G (1960) Experiments in hearing. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 745 (Translated and edited by E.G. Werer)

    Google Scholar 

  • Beranek LL (1988) Acoustical measurements. American Institute of Physics, New York, pp 841

    Google Scholar 

  • Beyer RT (1999) Sounds of our times: two hundred years of acoustics. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 444

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumrich R, Heimann D (2002) A linearized Eulerian sound propagation model for studies of complex meteorological effects. J Acoust Soc Am 112:446–455

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown CH (1994) Sound localization. In: Fay RR, Popper AN (eds) Comparative hearing: mammals. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 57–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown EH, Hall FF Jr (1978) Advances in atmospheric acoustics. Rev Geophys Space Phys 16:47–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Canard-Carauna S, Lewy S, Vermorel J, Parmentier G (1990) Long-range sound propagation near the ground. Noise Control Eng 34:111–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas-Hamilton I, Douglas-Hamilton O (1975) Among the elephants. Viking Press, New York, pp 284

    Google Scholar 

  • Fay R, Popper AN (eds) (1994) Comparative hearing: mammals. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg New York, pp 260

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitch WT (1997) Vocal tract length and formant frequency dispersion correlate with body size in rhesus macaques. J Acoust Soc Am 102:1213–1222

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitch WT (2000) Skull dimensions in relation to body size in non-human mammals: the causal bases for acoustic allometry. Zool 103:40–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitch WT, Hauser MD (2002) Unpacking “honesty”: vertebrate vocal production and the evolution of acoustic signals. In: Simmons A, Fay RR, Popper N (eds) Acoustic communication, Vol 16. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, New York, pp 424

  • Fitch WT, Reby D (2001) The descended larynx is not uniquely human. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 268:1669–1675

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folk GE Jr (1966) Introduction to environmental physiology. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, pp 308

    Google Scholar 

  • Franke SJ, Swenson GW Jr (1989) A brief tutorial on the fast field program (FFP) as applied to sound propagation in the air. Appl Acoust 27:203–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garstang M, Fitzjarrald DR (1999) Observations of interactions between the tropical surface and atmosphere. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 405

    Google Scholar 

  • Garstang M, Larom D, Raspet R, Lindeque M (1995) Atmospheric controls on elephant communication. J Exp Biol 198:939–951

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gröning K, Saller M (1999) Elephants: a cultural and natural history. Mohn Media-Mohndruck GmbH, Gütersloh, pp 482 (English edition)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartman WM (1999) How we localize sound. Phys Today 52:24

    Google Scholar 

  • Heffner R, Heffner H (1980) Hearing in the elephant (Elephas maximus). Science 208:518–520

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heffner R, Heffner H (1982) Hearing in the elephant (Elephas maximus): absolute sensitivity, frequency discrimination, and sound localization. J Comp Physiol Psychol 96:926–944

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heffner R, Heffner H (1984) Sound localization in large mammals: localization of complex sounds by horses. Behav Neurosci 98:541–555

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heffner R, Heffner H, Stichman N (1982) Role of elephant pinna in sound localization. Anim Behav 30:628–629

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimann D (2003) Numerical simulations of wind and sound propagation through an idealised stand of trees. Acta Acustica 89:779–788

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimann D, Blumrich R (2004) Time-domain simulations of sound propagation through screen-induced turbulence. Appl Acoust (in press)

  • Heimann D, Gross G (1999) Coupled simulation of meteorological parameters and sound level in a narrow valley. Appl Acoust 56:73–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kavaler L (1981) A matter of degree: heat, life, and death. Harper and Row, New York, pp 226

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroodsma DE, Miller EH, Ouellet H (eds) (1982) Acoustic communication in birds, vol I. Academy, New York, pp 392

  • Kuhn GF (1977) Model for the interaural time differences in the azimuthal plane. J Acoust Soc Am 62:157–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn GF (1987) Physical acoustic and measurements pertaining to directional hearing. In: Yost WA, Gourevitch G (eds) Directional hearing. Academic, New York, pp 305

    Google Scholar 

  • Langbauer WR Jr (2000) Elephant communication. Zoo Biol 19:425–445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langbauer WR Jr, Payne K, Charif R, Rapport L, Osborne F (1991) African elephants respond to distant playback of low-frequency conspecific calls. J Exp Biol 157:35–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Larom DL (1996) Meteorological controls on the infrasonic communication of the African elephant. PhD dissertation, University of Virginia, pp 113

  • Larom D (2002) Auditory communication, meteorology and the Umwelt. J Comp Psychol 116:133–136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larom DL, Garstang M, Payne K, Raspet R, Lindeque M (1997) The influence of surface atmospheric conditions on the range and area reached by animal vocalizations. J Exp Biol 200:421–431

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SW, Richards WF, Bong N, Raspet R (1986) Impedance formulation of the Fast Field Program for acoustic wave propagation in the atmosphere. J Acoust Soc Am 79:628–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Leong KM, Ortolani A, Burks KD, Mellen JD, Savage A (2004) Quantifying acoustic and temporal characteristics of vocalizations for a group of captive African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Bioacoustics (in press)

  • Long GR (1994) Psychoacoustics. In: Fay RR, Popper AN (eds) Comparative hearing: mammals. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 18–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin RB (1978) Aspects of elephant social organization. Rhodesia Sci News 12:184–187

    Google Scholar 

  • McComb KE (1991) Female choice for high roaring rate in red deer, Cervus elaphus. Anim Behav 41:79–88

    Google Scholar 

  • McComb K, Moss C, Sayialel S, Baker L (2000) Unusually extensive networks of vocal recognition in African elephants. Anim Behav 59:1103–1109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McComb K, Reby D, Baker L, Moss C, Sayialel S (2003) Long-distance communication of acoustic cues to social identity in African elephants. Anim Behav 65:317–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden BJ (1997) Origin and evolution of the grazing guild in new world terrestrial mammals. Trends Ecol Evol 12:182–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGregor PK (1993) Signaling in territorial systems: a context for individual identification, ranging, and eavesdropping. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 340:237–244

    Google Scholar 

  • McGregor PI, Dabelsteen T (1996) Communication networks. In: Kroodsma DE, Miller EH (eds) Ecology and evolution of acoustic communication of birds. Cornell University Press, New York, pp 409–425

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss C (1983) Oestrous behavior and female choice in the African elephant. Behavior 86:167–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss C (1988) Elephant memories: thirteen years in the life of an elephant family. Ballantine Books, New York, pp 335

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss C (2001) The demography of an African elephant (Loxodonta africana) population in Amboseli, Kenya. J Zool London 255:145–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naguid M, Wiley RH (2001) Estimating the distance to a source of sound: mechanisms and adaptations for long-range communication. Rev Anim Behav 62:825–837

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholas JL, Berry JL, Daigle GA (1985) Propagation of sound above a finite layer of snow. J Acoust Soc Am 77:67–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholls ME, Pielke RA (1994) Thermal compression waves. I: total-energy transfer. Q J Roy Meteorol Soc 120:305–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Partan S, Marler P (2002) In: West MJ (ed) The Umwelt and its relevance to animal communication: introduction to special issue. J Comp Psychol 116:116–119

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Payne K (1998) Silent thunder: in the presence of elephants. Simon and Schuster, New York, pp 288

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne K, Langbauer WR Jr, Thomas EM (1986) Infrasonic calls of the Asian elephant (Elaphas maximus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 18:297–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne K, Thompson M, Kramer L (2003) Elephant calling patterns as indicators of group size and composition: the basis for an acoustic monitoring system. Afr J Ecol 41:99–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce AD (1981) Acoustics: an introduction to its physical principles and applications. McGraw-Hill, New York, p 61

    Google Scholar 

  • Piercy J, Embleton J, Sutherland L (1977) Review of noise propagation in the atmosphere. J Acoust Soc Am 61:1403–1418

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poole J (1987) Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth. Behavior 102:283–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole J (1989a) Announcing intent: the aggressive state of musth in the African elephant. Anim Behav 37:140–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole J (1989b) Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants. Anim Behav 37:842–849

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole J (1994) Sex differences in the behavior of African elephants. In: Short RV, Balaban E (eds) The differences between the sexes. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 479

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole J (1996) Coming of age with elephants. Hyperion Press, New York, pp 288

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole JH, Payne K, Langbauer WR Jr, Moss C (1988) The social contexts of some very low-frequency calls of African elephants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 22:385–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Price MA, Attenborough K, Heap NW (1988) Sound attenuation through trees: measurements and models. J Acoust Soc Am 84:1836–1844

    Google Scholar 

  • Raspet R, Lee SW, Kuester E, Chang DC, Richards WF, Gilbert R, Bong N (1985) Fast Field Program for sound propagation in a layered atmosphere above an impedance ground. J Acoust Soc Am 77:345–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Reby D, McComb K (2003) Anatomical constraints generate honesty: acoustic cues to age and weight in roars of red deer stags. Anim Behav 65:519–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rendall D (1996) Social communication and vocal recognition in free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). PhD dissertation, University of California

  • Richards DG, Wiley RH (1980) Reverberations and amplitude fluctuations in the propagation of sound in a forest: implications for animal communication. Am Nat 115:381–399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Fitch WT (1999) Vocal tract length and acoustics of vocalization in the domestic dog, Canis familiaris. J Exp Biol 202:2859–2869

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson JS, Jacobson MJ, Siegmann WI, Santandrea JP (1989) Acoustical effects of a large ridge on low-frequency sound propagation in stationary and moving atmospheres. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Math Rpt. 181, pp 6–11

  • Rosowski JJ (1994) Outer and middle ears. In: Fay RR, Popper AN (eds) Comparative hearing: mammals. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 172–247

    Google Scholar 

  • Rundus AS, Hart LA (2002) Overview: animal acoustic communication and the role of the physical environment. In: West MJ (ed) Special issue: revisiting the Umwelt. J Comp Psychol 116:120–122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruyst JD, Schilling AJ (2002) Overview: expanding an animals self-world to include conspecifics. J Comp Psychol 116:164–165

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salomons EM, Blumrich R, Heimann D (2002) Eulerian time-domain model for sound propagation over a finite-impedance ground surface: comparison with frequency-domain models. Acta Acustica 88:483–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulte BA, Rasmussen LEL (1999) Musth, sexual selection, testosterone, and metabolites. In: Johnston RE, Muller-Schwarze D, Sorensen P (eds) Advances in chemical signals in vertebrates. Plenum Press, New York, pp 383–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoshani J (1998) Understanding proboscidean evolution: a formidable task. Trends in Ecol Evol 13:480–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spiesberger JL, Fristrup KM (1990) Passive localization of calling animals and sensing of their acoustic environment using acoustic tomography. Am Nat 135:107–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Titze I (1994) Principles of voice production. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Waser PM, Waser MS (1977) Experimental studies of primate vocalization: specializations for long-distance propagation. Z Tierpsychol 43:239–263

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster DB, Popper AN, Fay RR (1992) The mammalian auditory pathway: neuroanatomy. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 485

    Google Scholar 

  • West M, Sack RA, Walkden F (1991) The fast field program (FFP). A second tutorial: application to long range sound propagation in the atmosphere. Appl Acoust 33:199–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiley RH, Richards DB (1978) Physical constraints on acoustic communication in the atmosphere: implications for the evolution of animal vocalizations. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 3:69–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmer P, Stone G, Johnston I (2000) Environmental physiology of animals. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 644

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson ML, Hauser MD, Wrangham RW (2001) Does participation in intergroup conflict depend on numerical assessment, range location or rank for wild chimpanzees? Anim Behav 61:1203–1216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson DK, Noble JM, Coleman MA (2003) Sound propagation in the nocturnal boundary layer. J Atmos Sci 60:2473–2486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerwar AJ, Meredith RW (1984) Low-frequency sound absorption measurements in air. NASA Publication 1128, p 19

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due to Mary Morris for preparing the manuscript and carrying out much of the necessary literature searches. I would also like to thank Don Brown for many hours of stimulating discussions on the complex field of sound.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400123, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA

    Michael Garstang

Authors
  1. Michael Garstang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Garstang.

Additional information

An erratum to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00359-004-0598-0

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Garstang, M. Long-distance, low-frequency elephant communication. J Comp Physiol A 190, 791–805 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-004-0553-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-004-0553-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation