Abstract
The root cap is a universal feature of angiosperm, gymnosperm, and pteridophyte roots. Besides providing protection against abrasive damage to the root tip, the root cap is also involved in the simultaneous perception of a number of signals – pressure, moisture, gravity, and perhaps others – that modulate growth in the main body of the root. These signals, which originate in the external environment, are transduced by the cap and are then transported from the cap to the root. Root gravitropism is one much studied response to an external signal. In the present paper, consideration is given to the structure of the root cap and, in particular, to how the meristematic initial cells of both the central cap columella and the lateral portion of the cap which surrounds the columella are organized in relation to the production of new cells. The subsequent differentiation and development of these cells is associated with their displacement through the cap and their eventual release, as “border cells”, from the cap periphery. Mutations, particularly in Arabidopsis, are increasingly playing a part in defining not only the pattern of genetic activity within different cells of the cap but also in revealing how the corresponding wild-type proteins relate to the range of functions of the cap. Notable in this respect have been analyses of the early events of root gravitropism. The ability to image auxin and auxin permeases within the cap and elsewhere in the root has also extended our understanding of this growth response. Images of auxin distribution may, in addition, help extend ideas concerning the positional controls of cell division and cell differentiation within the cap. However, firm information relating to these controls is scarce, though there are intriguing suggestions of some kind of physiological link between the border cells surrounding the cap and mitotic activity in the cap meristem. Open questions concern the structure and functional interrelationships between the root and the cap which surmounts it, and also the means by which the cap transduces the environmental signals that are of critical importance for the growth of the individual roots, and collectively for the shaping of the root system.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
JE Armstrong C Heimsch (1976) ArticleTitleOntogenetic reorganization of the root meristem of Compositae. Am J Bot 63 212–219
NG Ball (1969) Tropic, nastic, and tactic responses. FC Steward (Eds) Plant physiology. A treatise, Vol VA. Analysis of growth: behavior of plants and their organs. Academic Press New York, London 119–228
F Baluška JS Parker PW Barlow (1992) ArticleTitleSpecific patterns of cortical and endoplasmic microtubules associated with cell growth and tissue differentiation in roots of maize (Zea mays L.). J Cell Sci 103 191–200
F Baluška D Volkmann M Hauskrecht PW Barlow (1996) ArticleTitleRoot cap mucilage and extracellular calcium as modulators of cellular growth in postmitotic growth zones of the maize root apex. Bot Acta 109 25–34
KP Barley (1970) ArticleTitleThe configuration of the root system in relation to nutrient uptake. Adv Agron 22 159–201
PW Barlow (1974) ArticleTitleRegeneration of the cap of primary roots of Zea mays. New Phytol 73 937–954 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2MXhsVSrsg%3D%3D
PW Barlow (1975) The root cap. JG Torrey DT Clarkson (Eds) The development and function of roots Academic Press London 21–54
PW Barlow (1976) ArticleTitleThe integrity and organization of nuclear DNA in cells of the root cap of Zea mays probed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase and microdensitometry. Z Pflanzenphysiol 80 271–278 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE28XlslCntbg%3D
PW Barlow (1977a) ArticleTitleThe dynamic aspect of cytodifferentiation in cells. Naturwiss 64 532
PW Barlow (1977b) ArticleTitleAn experimental study of cell and nuclear growth and their relation to cell diversification within a plant tissue. Differentiation 8 153–157 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2sXlvFOnt7Y%3D
PW Barlow (1978) ArticleTitleCell displacement through the columella of the root cap of Zea mays L. Ann Bot 42 783–790
PW Barlow (1981) Division and differentiation during regeneration at the root apex. R Brouwer O Gašparíková BC Loughman (Eds) Structure and function of plant roots M Nijhoff/W Junk The Hague 85–87
PW Barlow (1982) ArticleTitleCell death—an integral part of plant development. British Plant Growth Regulator Group Monograph 8 27–45
PW Barlow (1984) Positional controls in root development. PW Barlow DJ Carr (Eds) Positional controls in plant development Cambridge University Press Cambridge 281–318
PW Barlow (1985) ArticleTitleNuclear chromatin structure in relation to cell differentiation and cell activation in the cap and quiescent centre of Zea mays L. J Exp Bot 36 1492–1503
PW Barlow (1992) ArticleTitleThe meristem and quiescent centre in cultured roots of the gib-1 mutant of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). Ann Bot 69 533–543
PW Barlow (1997) Stem cells and founder zones in plants, particularly their roots. CS Potten (Eds) Stem cells. Academic Press London 29–57
PW Barlow ER Hines (1982) ArticleTitleRegeneration of the root cap of Zea mays L. and Pisum sativum L.: a study with the scanning electron microscope. Ann Bot 49 521–539
PW Barlow JS Parker (1996) ArticleTitleMicrotubular cytoskeleton and root morphogenesis. Plant Soil 187 23–36 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXovFaitg%3D%3D
PW Barlow EL Rathfelder (1984) ArticleTitleCorrelations between the dimensions of different zones of grass root apices, and their implications for morphogenesis and differentiation in roots. Ann Bot 53 249–260
PW Barlow JA Sargent (1978) ArticleTitleThe ultrastructure of the regenerating root cap of Zea mays L. Ann Bot 42 791–799
PW Barlow HB Lück J Lück (2001) ArticleTitleAutoreproductive cells and plant meristem construction: the case of the tomato cap meristem. Protoplasma 215 50–63 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3Mnos1OnsQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11732065
S Baum TL Rost (1996) ArticleTitleRoot apical organization in Arabidopsis thaliana I: root cap and protoderm. Protoplasma 192 178–188
SF Baum JG Dubrovsky TL Rost (2002) ArticleTitleApical organization and maturation of the cortex and vascular cylinder in Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae) roots. Am J Bot 89 908–920
AG Bengough BM McKenzie (1997) ArticleTitleSloughing of root cap cells decreases the frictional resistance to maize (Zea mays L.) root growth. J Exp Bot 48 885–893 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXksFWrtrc%3D
RJ Bennet CM Breen (1991) ArticleTitleThe aluminium signal: new dimensions to mechanisms of aluminium tolerance. Plant Soil 134 153–166 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXltVOru7Y%3D
EB Blancaflor JM Fasano S Gilroy (1998) ArticleTitleMapping the functional roles of cap cells in the response of Arabidopsis primary roots to gravity. Plant Physiol 116 213–222 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXkslCqtg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9449842
HT Bonnett (1969) ArticleTitleCortical cell death during lateral root formation. J Cell Biol 40 144–159 Occurrence Handle5782442
LA Brigham H-H Woo M Nicoll MC Hawes (1995) ArticleTitleDifferential expression of proteins and mRNAs from border cells and root tips of pea. Plant Physiol 109 457–463 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXoslOqsbk%3D Occurrence Handle12228604
LA Brigham H-H Woo F Wen MC Hawes (1998) ArticleTitleMeristem-specific suppression of mitosis and a global switch in gene expression in the root cap of pea by endogenous signals. Plant Physiol 118 1223–1231 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXpsw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9847096
J Brugger R Rutishauser (1989) ArticleTitleBau und Entwicklung landbewohnender Utricularia-Arten. Bot Helv 99 91–146
L Caporali (1983) ArticleTitleCytological study of cultured cells from maize root cap. Plant Sci Letts 31 231–236
N Ceccarelli R Lorenzi A Alpi (1981) ArticleTitleGibberellin biosynthesis in Phaseolus coccineus suspensor. Z Pflanzenphysiol 102 37–44 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3MXltFWrs7s%3D
A Chaboud (1983) ArticleTitleIsolation, purification and chemical composition of maize root cap slime. Plant Soil 73 395–402 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3sXmtV2rur8%3D
A Chaboud M Rougier (1981) ArticleTitleSécrétions racinaires mucilagineuses et rôle dans la rhizosphère. Ann Biol 20 313–326
A Chaboud M Rougier (1991) ArticleTitleEffect of root density in incubation medium on root exudate composition of axenic maize seedlings. J Plant Physiol 137 602–606 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXktVGitrg%3D
A Chaboud M Rougier P Zandonella (1982) ArticleTitleEvaluation de la migration cellulaire dans la coiffe sécrétrice de riz. Bull Soc Bot Fr 129 21–29
R Chen E Rosen PH Masson (1999) ArticleTitleGravitropism in higher plants. Plant Physiol 120 343–350 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXktFWrurY%3D Occurrence Handle11541950
FAL Clowes (1972) ArticleTitleRegulation of mitosis in root by their caps. Nature New Biol 235 143–144
FAL Clowes (1976) ArticleTitleCell production by root caps. New Phytol 77 399–407
FAL Clowes (1980) ArticleTitleMitosis in the root cap of Zea mays. New Phytol 85 79–87
FAL Clowes (1981) ArticleTitleThe difference between open and closed meristems. Ann Bot 48 761–767
FAL Clowes (1982) ArticleTitleChanges in cell population kinetics in an open meristem during root growth. New Phytol 91 741–748
FAL Clowes R Wadekar (1988) ArticleTitleModelling of the root cap of Zea mays L. in relation to temperature. New Phytol 108 259–262
FAL Clowes RE Woolston (1978) ArticleTitleSloughing of root cap cells. Ann Bot 42 83–89
G Cnops X Wang P Linstead M Van Montague M Van Lijsebettens L Dolan (2000) ArticleTitle TORNADO 1 and TORNADO2 are required for the specification of radial and circumferential pattern in Arabidopsis root. Development 127 3385–3394 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmtFyhtb4%3D Occurrence Handle10887093
FHC Crick (1970) ArticleTitleDiffusion in embryogenesis. Nature 225 420–422 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaE3c%2FosVCqug%3D%3D Occurrence Handle5411117
C Darwin F Darwin (1880) The power of movements in plants. John Murray London
D Francis (1998) Cell size and organ development in higher plants. D Francis D Dudits D Inzé (Eds) Plant cell division Portland Press London, Miami 187–206
G Freshour RP Clay MS Fuller P Albersheim AG Darvill MG Hahn (1996) ArticleTitleDevelopmental and tissue-specific structural alterations of the cell-wall polysaccharides of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. Plant Physiol 110 1413–1429 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XitlWjtbo%3D Occurrence Handle12226270
J Friml K Palme (2002) ArticleTitlePolar auxin transport—old questions and new concepts? Plant Mol Biol 49 273–284 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XktlSqtrc%3D Occurrence Handle12036254
J Friml E Benková I Blilou et al. (2002a) ArticleTitleAtPIN4 mediates sink-driven auxin gradients and root patterning in Arabidopsis. Cell 108 661–673 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XisFOhtL0%3D
J Friml J Wiśniewska E Benková K Mendgen K Palme (2002b) ArticleTitleLateral relocation of auxin efflux regulator PIN3 mediates tropism in Arabidopsis. Nature 415 806–809
L Gälweiler C Guan A Müller et al. (1998) ArticleTitleRegulation of polar auxin transport by AtPIN1 in Arabidopsis vascular tissue. Science 282 2226–2230 Occurrence Handle9856939
WM Gray M Estelle (2000) ArticleTitleFunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in auxin response. Trends Biochem Sci 24 133–138
FC Guinel ME McCully (1987) ArticleTitleThe cells shed by the root cap of Zea: their origin and some structural and physiological properties. Plant Cell Environ 10 565–578
H Guttenberg (1960) Grundzüge der Histogenese hörerer Pflanzen I. Die Angiospermen. Gebrüder Borntraeger Berlin
H von Guttenberg J Burmeister (1955) ArticleTitleStudien über die Entwicklung des Wurzelvegetationspunktes der Dikotyledonen, II. Planta 46 179–222
F Guzzo B Baldan M Levi et al. (1995) ArticleTitleEarly cellular events during induction of carrot explants with 2,4-D. Protoplasma 185 28–36 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXnt1Chu7w%3D
T Hamann (2001) ArticleTitleThe role of auxin in apical-basal pattern formation during Arabidopsis embryogenesis. J Plant Growth Regul 20 292–299 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjtVCmsg%3D%3D
PAA Harkes (1973) ArticleTitleStructure and dynamics of the root cap of Avena sativa L. Acta Bot Neerl 22 321–328
PAA Harkes (1976) ArticleTitleOrganization and activity of the root cap meristem of Avena sativa L. New Phytol 76 367–375
PJ Harris DH Northcote (1970) ArticleTitlePatterns of polysaccharide biosynthesis in differentiating cells of maize root-tips. Biochem J 120 479–491 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE3MXmtFKiug%3D%3D Occurrence Handle5499960
MC Hawes H-J Lin (1990) ArticleTitleCorrelation of pectolytic enzyme activity with programmed release of cells from the root cap of pea. Plant Physiol 94 1855–1859 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXjvFentw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle16667927
MC Hawes LY Smith M Stephenson (1991) ArticleTitleRoot organogenesis from single cells released from the root cap of Medicago sp. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 27 303–308
MC Hawes LA Brigham F Wen HH Woo Y Zhu (1998) ArticleTitleFunction of root border cells in plant health: pioneers in the rhizosphere. Annu Rev Phytopathol 36 311–327 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmtlalsbc%3D Occurrence Handle15012503
MA Hayat (1963) ArticleTitleApical organization in roots of the genus Cassia. Bull Torrey Bot Club 90 123–136
M Iijima Y Kono (1992) ArticleTitleDevelopment of Golgi apparatus in the root cap cells of maize (Zea mays L.) as affected by compacted soil. Ann Bot 70 207–212
M Iijima B Griffiths AG Bengough (2000) ArticleTitleSloughing of cap cells and carbon exudation from maize seedling roots in compacted sand. New Phytol 145 477–482
M Iijima PW Barlow AG Bengough (2003) ArticleTitleRoot cap structure and cell production rates of maize (Zea mays L.) roots in compacted sand. . . .
AM Innocenti A Stefani (1977) ArticleTitleNuclear metabolic aspects and root cap renewal in Allium cepa. Caryologia 30 205–215 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE1cXjsVKhtA%3D%3D
H Ishikawa ML Evans (1992) ArticleTitleInduction of curvature in maize roots by calcium or by thigmostimulation. Role of the postmitotic isodiametric growth zone. Plant Physiol 100 762–768 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK38XmsVyluro%3D Occurrence Handle11537870
I Jäger-Zürn M Grubert (2000) ArticleTitlePodostemaceae depend on sticky biofilms with respect to attachment to rocks in waterfalls. Int J Plant Sci 161 599–607
EM Johnson LI Pao LJ Feldman (1991) ArticleTitleRegulation of phytochrome message abundance in root caps of maize. Spatial, environmental, and genetic specificity. Plant Physiol 95 544–550 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXhsVSis78%3D Occurrence Handle11537488
BE Juniper PW Barlow (1969) ArticleTitleThe distribution of plasmodesmata in the root tip of maize. Planta 89 352–360
BE Juniper G Pask (1973) ArticleTitleDirectional secretion by the Golgi bodies in maize root cells. Planta 109 225–231
S Kawata S Suzuki K Yamazaki (1979) ArticleTitleThe detachment of the “primary root caps” in rice plants. Jap J Crop Sci 48 303–310
C Kidner V Sundaresan K Roberts (2000) ArticleTitleClonal analysis of the Arabidopsis root confirms that position, not lineage, determines cell fate. Planta 211 191–199 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXksFGhtL0%3D Occurrence Handle10945213
J Klein F Szabó (1880) ArticleTitleZur Kenntniss der Wurzeln von Aesculus Hippocastanum L. Flora 63 163–168
M Kuraś (1978) ArticleTitleActivation of embryo during rape (Brassica napus L.) seed germination I. Structure of embryo and organization of root apical meristem. Acta Soc Bot Polon 47 65–82
RG Leavitt (1902) ArticleTitleThe root hairs, cap, and sheath of Azolla. Bot Gaz 34 414–419
G Li TC Hall R Holmes-Davis (2002) ArticleTitlePlant chromatin: development and gene control. BioEssays 24 234–243 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XisFGltrc%3D Occurrence Handle11891760
Livingstone DJ (1987) Modelling cell proliferation in a structured tissue. Ph D Thesis, Reading University, UK.
J Lück PW Barlow HB Lück (1994) ArticleTitleCell genealogies in a plant meristem deduced with the aid of a ‘bootstrap' L-system. Cell Prolif 27 1–21 Occurrence Handle10465023
J Lück PW Barlow HB Lück (1997) ArticleTitleAn automata-theoretical model of meristem development as applied to the primary root of Zea mays L. Ann Bot 79 375–389
MA Lynch LA Staehelin (1992) ArticleTitleDomain-specific and cell type-specific localization of two types of cell wall matrix polysaccharides in the clover root tip. J Cell Biol 118 467–479 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK38XkvVKrsL0%3D Occurrence Handle1378451
MA Lynch LA Staehelin (1995) ArticleTitleImmunocytochemical localization of cell wall polysaccharides in the root tip of Avena sativa. Protoplasma 188 115–127 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXpvFyrtbs%3D
IR Macdonald DC Gordon (1978) ArticleTitleThe regulation of root growth in cress seedlings by light and gravity. J Exp Bot 29 1051–1058
GD Massa S Gilroy (2003) ArticleTitleTouch modulates gravity sensing to regulate the growth of primary roots of Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J 33 435–445 Occurrence Handle12581302
T Matsuyama H Satoh Y Yamada T Hashimoto (1999a) ArticleTitleA maize glycine-rich protein is synthesised in the lateral root cap and accumulates in the mucilage. Plant Physiol 120 665–674 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXks1amt7c%3D
T Matsuyama N Yasumura M Funakoshi Y Yamada T Hashimoto (1999b) ArticleTitleMaize genes specifically expressed in the outermost cells of root cap. Plant Cell Physiol 40 469–476 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjsVOitrw%3D
I Miller R Moore (1990) ArticleTitleDefective secretion of mucilage is the cellular basis for agravitropism in primary roots of Zea mays cv. Ageotropic. Ann Bot 66 169–178 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3Mnls1ajsw%3D%3D
Y Mizukami RL Fischer (2000) ArticleTitlePlant organ size control: AINTEGUMENTA regulates growth and cell numbers during organogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97 942–947 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXot1aluw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10639184
GB Monshausen A Sievers (2002) ArticleTitleBasipetal propagation of gravity-induced surface pH changes along primary roots of Lepidium sativum L. Planta 215 980–988 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XovValurs%3D Occurrence Handle12355158
ER Montaldi (1969) ArticleTitleGibberellin-sugar interaction regulating the growth habit of Bermuda grass. Experientia 25 91–92 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaF1MXls1Gitw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle5766600
R Moore (1985) ArticleTitleDimensions of root caps and columella tissues of primary roots of Ricinus communis characterized by different degrees of graviresponsiveness. Ann Bot 55 375–380
R Moore I Miller (1993) ArticleTitleCellular differentiation in root caps of Zea mays that do not secrete mucilage. Plant Cell Environ 16 1003–1009
R Moore WM Fondren EC Koon C-L Wang (1986) ArticleTitleThe influence of gravity on the formation of amyloplasts in columella cells of Zea mays L. Plant Physiol 82 867–868 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MnlslKmtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11539093
R Moore CE McLelen WM Fondren C-L Wang (1987) ArticleTitleInfluence of microgravity on root-cap regeneration and the structure of columella cells in Zea mays. Am J Bot 74 218–223 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MnlslKlsA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11539100
S Morita K Yamazaki S Kawata (1983) ArticleTitleRelationships between the growth direction of primary roots and their conductive capacities in rice plants. Jap J Crop Sci 52 562–566
B Mosse (1975) A microbiologist's view of root anatomy. N Walker (Eds) Soil microbiology Butterworths London, Boston 39–66
GK Muday (2000) ArticleTitleMaintenance of asymmetric cellular localization of an auxin transport protein through interaction with the actin cytoskeleton. J Plant Growth Regul 19 385–396 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXksVGms7k%3D Occurrence Handle11762378
A Müller H Hillebrand EW Weiler (1998) ArticleTitleIndole-3-acetic acid is synthesized from L-tryptophan in roots of Arabidopsis thaliana. Planta 206 362–369 Occurrence Handle9763705
K Nakajima G Sena T Nawy PN Benfey (2001) ArticleTitleIntercellular movement of the putative transcription factor SHR in root patterning. Nature 413 307–311 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnt1Kitb8%3D Occurrence Handle11565032
B Němec (1964) ArticleTitleÜber Georezeptoren in Wurzeln. Biol Plant (Praha) 6 243–249
BA Niemira GR Safir MC Hawes (1996) ArticleTitleArbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and border cell production: a possible correlation. Phytopathology 86 563–565
Y Ohwaki S Tsurumi (1976) ArticleTitleAuxin transport and growth in intact roots of Vicia faba. Plant Cell Physiol 17 1329–1342 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2sXlt1Omtw%3D%3D
K Palme G Gälweiler (1999) ArticleTitlePIN-pointing the molecular basis of auxin transport. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2 375–381 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXmvFSis7w%3D Occurrence Handle10508762
RL Peterson (1983) ArticleTitleRoot apex structure in Ephedra nevadensis. Can J Bot 61 267–278
HL Philips Jr JG Torrey (1971) ArticleTitleDeoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in root cap cells of cultured roots of Convolvulus. Plant Physiol 48 213–218
P-E Pilet (1971) ArticleTitleRoot cap and georeaction. Nature New Biol 233 115–116
P-E Pilet (1986) ArticleTitleThe importance of the root cap for root growth. Planta 169 600–602
P-E Pilet (2002) Root growth and gravireaction: a critical study of hormone and regulator implications. Y Waisel A Eshel U Kafkafi (Eds) Plant roots: the hidden half, 3rd ed Marcel Dekker New York, Basel 489–504
P-E Pilet PW Barlow (1987) ArticleTitleThe role of abscisic acid in root growth and gravireaction: a critical review. Plant Growth Regul 6 217–265 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXksFWlsbY%3D
P-E Pilet H Henry C Jollès (1985) Isolation of maize protoplasts from the root cap and apex. P-E Pilet (Eds) The physiological properties of plant protoplasts. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 24–28
A Pillai (1966) ArticleTitleRoot apical organization in gymnosperms. Planta 70 26–33
MF Pittenger AM Mackay SC Beck et al. (1999) ArticleTitleMultilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. Science 284 143–147 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXitlCnu7o%3D Occurrence Handle10102814
G Ponce R Luján ME Campos et al. (2000) ArticleTitleThree maize root-specific genes are not correctly expressed in regenerated caps in the absence of the quiescent center. Planta 211 23–33 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXjvVyhs7Y%3D Occurrence Handle10923700
DM Porterfield (2002) Environmental sensing and directional growth of plant roots. Y Waisel A Eshel U Kafkafi (Eds) Plant roots: the hidden half, 3rd ed Marcel Dekker New York, Basel 471–487
AM Rashotte A DeLong GK Muday (2001) ArticleTitleGenetic and chemical reductions in protein phosphatase activity alter auxin transport, gravity response, and lateral root growth. Plant Cell 13 1683–1697 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXlsFKlt7c%3D Occurrence Handle11449059
JS Ransom R Moore (1985) ArticleTitleGeoperception in primary and lateral roots of Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae). III. A model to explain the differential georesponsiveness of primary and lateral roots. Can J Bot 63 21–24 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MnlvVersw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11539814
SD Richardson (1955) ArticleTitleThe influence of rooting medium on the structure and development of the root-cap in seedlings of Acer saccharinum L. New Phytol 54 336–337
JL Riopel MP Timko (1995) Haustorial initiation and differentiation. MC Press JD Graves (Eds) Parasitic plants Chapman and Hall London 39–79
R Rutishauser (1997) ArticleTitleStructural and developmental diversity in Podostemaceae (river weeds). Aquatic Bot 57 29–70
S Sabatini D Beis H Wolkenfelt et al. (1999) ArticleTitleAn auxin-dependent distal organizer of pattern and polarity in the Arabidopsis root. Cell 99 463–472 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXnvVSis7Y%3D Occurrence Handle10589675
B Sambin M Rougier P Zandonella (1978) Renewal of the root cap of Cissus sicyoides. A Riedacker J Gagnaire-Michard (Eds) Symposium proceedings-Physiologie des racines et symbioses, Nancy, 11–15 September, 1978 Union Internationale des Instituts de Recherches Forestières Nancy 160–170
A Sievers M Braun GB Monshausen (2002) The root cap: structure and function. Y Waisel A Eshel U Kafkafi (Eds) Plant roots: the hidden half, 3rd ed Marcel Dekker New York, Basel 33–47
R Singhvi A Kumar GP Lopez et al. (1994) ArticleTitleEngineering cell shape and function. Science 264 696–698 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXivFemtr8%3D Occurrence Handle8171320
JMW Slack (1987) ArticleTitleMorphogenetic gradients–past and present. Trends Biochem Sci 12 200–204 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXltFWitLs%3D
MB Stephenson MC Hawes (1994) ArticleTitleCorrelation of pectin methylesterase activity in root caps of pea with root border cell separation. Plant Physiol 106 739–745 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXmslKktrc%3D Occurrence Handle12232366
K Suzuki Y Kita M Kato (2002) ArticleTitleComparative developmental anatomy of seedlings in nine species of Podostemaceae (subfamily Podostemoideae). Ann Bot 89 755–765 Occurrence Handle12102531
R Swarup J Friml A Marchant et al. (2001) ArticleTitleLocalization of the auxin permease AUX1 suggests two functionally distinct hormone transport pathways operate in the Arabidopsis root apex. Genes Dev 15 2648–2653 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnvVWksLk%3D Occurrence Handle11641271
H Takahashi (1997) ArticleTitleHydrotropism: the current state of our knowledge. J Plant Res 110 163–169 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MnlvFOjuw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11541137
R Tsugeki NV Federoff (1999) ArticleTitleGenetic ablation of root cap cells in Arabidopsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA 96 12941–12946 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXnt1yqtLY%3D Occurrence Handle10536027
A Tylicki W Burza M Kuraś E Dziadczyk S Malepszy (2000) ArticleTitleStructural and ultrastructural analysis of root primordia in vitro cultures (RPC) of Solanum lycopersicoides Dun. Plant Sci 156 73–83 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXkvVyitrg%3D Occurrence Handle10908807
C Van den Berg V Willemsen G Hendriks P Weisbeek B Scheres (1997) ArticleTitleShort-range control of cell differentiation in the Arabidopsis root meristem. Nature 390 287–289 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXnsVOlur0%3D Occurrence Handle9384380
M Vicré A Jauneau JP Knox A Driouich (1998) ArticleTitleImmunolocalization of β-(1→4) and β-(1→6)-D-galactan epitopes in the cell wall and Golgi stacks of developing flax root tissues. Protoplasma 203 26–34
N Wagner (1939) ArticleTitleÜber die Entwicklungsmechanik der Wurzelhaube und des Wurzelrippenmeristems. Planta 30 21–66
PJ Weathers YJ Kim (2001) ArticleTitleTransformed roots of Artemisia annua exhibit an unusual pattern of border cell release. In Vitro. Cell Dev Biol-Plant 37 440–445
F Wen Y Zhu MC Hawes (1999) ArticleTitleEffect of pectin methylesterase gene expression on pea root development. Plant Cell 11 1129–1140 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXksFOmurw%3D Occurrence Handle10368183
CL Wenzel TL Rost (2001) ArticleTitleCell division patterns of the protoderm and root cap in the “closed” root apical meristem of Arabidopsis thaliana. Protoplasma 218 203–213 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD38%2Fkt1yntw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11770436
CL Wenzel KL Tong TL Rost (2001) ArticleTitleModular construction of the protoderm and peripheral root cap in the “open” root apical meristem of Trifolium repens cv. Ladino. Protoplasma 218 214–224 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD38%2Fkt1yntA%3D%3D
GB West JH Brown BJ Enquist (2001) ArticleTitleA general model for ontogenetic growth. Nature 413 628–631 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnslegtbs%3D Occurrence Handle11675785
H Wilcox (1954) ArticleTitlePrimary organization of active and dormant roots of noble fir, Abies procera. Am J Bot 41 812–820
L Wolpert (1970) Positional information and pattern formation. CH Waddington (Eds) Towards a theoretical biology. 3. Drafts Edinburgh University Press Edinburgh 198–230
L Wolpert (1996) ArticleTitleOne hundred years of positional information. Trends Genet 12 359–364 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28Xls1yhtbY%3D Occurrence Handle8855666
H-H Woo MJ Orbach AM Hirsch MC Hawes (1999) ArticleTitleMeristem-localized inducible expression of a UDP-glycosyltransferase gene is essential for growth and development in pea and alfalfa. Plant Cell 11 2303–2315 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXkt1Cgtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10590160
K Wright DH Northcote (1974) ArticleTitleThe relationship of root-cap slimes to pectins. Biochem J 139 525–534 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE2MXhsVSgug%3D%3D Occurrence Handle4855044
X Zhao IJ Misaghi MC Hawes (2000) ArticleTitleStimulation of border cell production in response to increased carbon dioxide levels. Plant Physiol 122 181–188 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmvFamtA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10631261
T Zhu TL Rost (2000) ArticleTitleDirectional cell-to-cell communication in the Arabidopsis root apical meristem III. Plasmodesmata turnover and apoptosis in meristem and root cap cells during four weeks after germination. Protoplasma 213 99–107
T Zhu RL O'Quinn WJ Lucas TL Rost (1998a) ArticleTitleDirectional cell-to-cell communication in the Arabidopsis root apical meristem II. Dynamics of plasmodesmatal formation. Protoplasma 203 84–93
T Zhu WJ Lucas TL Rost (1998b) ArticleTitleDirectional cell-to-cell communication in the Arabidopsis root apical meristem I. An ultrastructural and functional analysis. Protoplasma 203 35–47
Acknowledgements
I should like to acknowledge all the insights into root morphology, anatomy, and cytology that are due to Dr. Lionel Clowes, now in his 80th year (b. 12 September 1921), and for the inspiration derived from his remarkable 50 years (1950–2000) of research publications. Thanks are also due to Dr. Martha C. Hawes for stimulating discussion concerning cap border cells.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barlow, P.W. The Root Cap: Cell Dynamics, Cell Differentiation and Cap Function . J Plant Growth Regul 21, 261–286 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-002-0034-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-002-0034-z