Abstract
The productivity of tropical agricultural commodities is affected by the health of the ecosystem. Shade tolerant crops such as coffee and cocoa benefit from environmental services provided by forested landscapes, enabling landscape design that meets biodiversity conservation and economic needs. What can motivate farmers to apply and maintain such landscape approaches? Rather than rely on a proliferation of externally funded projects new opportunities are emerging through the international market that buys these commodities. As part of their growing commitment to sustainable supply chains, major companies are supporting agroforestry approaches and requiring producers and traders to demonstrate that the source of their commodities complies with a set of principles that conserves forested landscapes and improves local livelihoods. The paper presents examples of international companies that are moving in this direction, analyzes why and how they are doing it and discusses the impact that has been measured in coffee and cocoa communities in Latin America and Africa. It particularly considers the role of standards and certification systems as a driver of this commitment to promote profitable operations, environmental conservation and social responsibility throughout the coffee and cocoa value chains. Such approaches are already being taken to scale and are no longer operating only in small niches of the market but the paper also considers the limitations to growth in this market-based approach.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bentley JW, Boa E, Stonehouse J (2004) Neighbor trees: shade, intercropping, and cacao in Ecuador. Human Ecology 32(2):241–270
Borot de Battisti A, MacGregor J, Graffham A (eds) (2009) Standard bearers: horticultural exports and private standards in Africa. IIED, London
Byers A, Giovanucci D, Liu P (2008) Value adding standards in the North American food market: trade opportunities in certified products for developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome
Dahlquist RM, Whelan MP, Winowiecki L, Polidoro B, Candela S, Harvey CA, Wulfhorst JD, McDaniel PA, Bosque-Perez NA (2006) Incorporating livelihoods in biodiversity conservation: a case study of cacao agroforestry systems in Talamanca, Costa Rica. In: Biodiversity and conservation, vol 16, No 8. Special issue: Biodiversity conservation in cocoa production landscapes
De Lima ACB, Novaes Keppe AL, Palmieri R, Corrêa Alves M, Maule RF, Sparovek G (2008) Impact of Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) certification on coffee farms: case study in the southern region and cerrado areas of the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Instituto de Manejo e Certificação Florestal e Agrícola (Imaflora), University of São Paulo (USP) and Entropix Engineering Company, Piricicaba
De Schutter O (2010) Agro-ecology and the right to food. United Nations Human Rights Office, Geneva
Denning GL (2001) Realising the potential of agroforestry: integrating research and development to achieve greater impact. Development in Practice 11(4):407–416
Giovannucci D, Potts J (2008) Seeking sustainability: COSA preliminary analysis of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg
Gockowski J, Sonwa D (2010) Cocoa intensification scenarios and their predicted impact on CO2 emissions, biodiversity conservation, and rural livelihoods in the Guinea Rain Forest of West Africa. Environmental Management. doi:10.1007/s00267-010-9602-3
Gockowski J, Tchatat M, Dondjang JP, Hietet G, Fouda T (2010) An empirical analysis of the biodiversity and economic returns to cocoa agroforests in southern Cameroon. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 28:638–670
Guillerme S, Kumar BM, Menon A, Hinnewinkel C, Maire E, Santhoshkumar AV (2011) Impacts of public policies and farmer preferences on agroforestry practices in Kerala, India. Environmental Management. doi: 10.1007/s00267-011-9628-1
Hagger J, Barrios M, Merlo M, Munguia R, Staver C, Melo De, Virginio FE (2009) Shade-productivity interactions in coffee agroforestry trials in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Universidad Nacional Agraria, Managua
Heise J (2010) Comparison of private-sector standards applicable to cocoa production. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Berlin
Humphrey J, Schmitz H (2001) Governance in global value chains. IDS Bulletin 32.3. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
ISEAL Alliance (2010) Code of good practice for setting social and environmental standards. ISEAL Alliance, London
ISEAL Alliance (2011) The ISEAL 100: a survey of thought leaders views on sustainability standards. ISEAL Alliance, London
Krain E, Millard E, Konan E, Servat E (2011) Trade and pro-poor growth: introducing rainforest alliance certification to cocoa production in Côte d’Ivoire. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), Eschborn
Leakey RRB (2009) Agroforestry: a delivery mechanism for multi-functional agriculture. Nova Publications, James Cook University, Cairns
McNeeley JA, Schroth G (2006) Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation—traditional practices, present dynamics, and lessons for the future. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:549–554
Millard E (2010) Restructuring the supply chain. In: Scherr S, McNeely J (eds) Farming with nature: the science and practice of ecoagriculture. Island Press, Washington, DC
Mutersbaugh T, Klooster D, Renard M, Taylor P (2005) Certifying rural spaces: quality-certified products and rural governance. Journal of Rural Studies 21:381–388
Obiri Darko B, Bright GA, McDonald MA, Anglaaere LCN, Cobbina J (2007) Financial analysis of shaded cocoa in Ghana. Agroforestry Systems 71:139–149
Potts J, van der Meer J, Daitchman J (2010) The state of sustainability initiatives review: sustainability and transparency. International Institute for Sustainable Development/International Institute for Environment and Development, Winnipeg/London
Renard M (2005) Quality certification, regulation and power in fair trade. Journal of Rural Studies 21:419–431
Rice R (2010) The ecological benefits of shade-grown coffee: the case for going bird friendly. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, Washington, DC
Rice R, Greenberg R (2000) Cacao cultivation and the conservation of biological diversity. Ambio 29(3):167–173
Romanoff S (2008) Shade coffee in biological corridors: potential results at the landscape level in El Salvador. United States Agency for International Development, Washington, DC
Ronchi L (2002) The impact of fair trade on producers and their organizations: a case study with COOCAFE in Costa Rica. Poverty Research Unit at Sussex Working Paper No. 11, University of Sussex
Rosenberg D, Eckstein M, Brett C (2009) Traders as agents of sustainability in coffee and cocoa supply chains. The Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative, Utrecht
Ruf F, Zadi H (1998) Cocoa: from deforestation to reforestation. In: First international workshop on sustainable cocoa growing. Smithsonian Institute, Panama
Ruf F, De Heuvels O, Sarpong D (2006) Intensification in cocoa cropping systems: is agroforestry a solution for sustainability? The Case of Manso Amenfi, Western region, Ghana. In: 15th International conference on cocoa research, vol 1, pp 355–364
Schroth G, Sinclair FL (2003) Trees, crops and soil fertility: concepts and research methods. CAB International, Wallingford
Schroth G, Da Fonseca GAB, Harvey CA, Gascon C, Vasconcelos HL, Izac AN (2004) Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Island Press, Washington, DC
Tscharntke T, Clough Y, Bhagwat SA, Buchori D, Faust H, Hertel D, lscher DH, Juhrbandt J, Kessler M, Perfecto I, Scherber1 C, Schroth G, Veldkamp E, Wanger TC (2010) Multifunctional shade-tree management in tropical agroforestry landscapes—a review. J Appl Ecol 48. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01939.x
Van Bael SA, Philpott S, Greenberg R, Bichier P, Barber N, Mooney K, Gruner D (2008) Birds as predators in tropical agroforestry systems: a meta-analysis. Ecology 89:928–934
Van Heuven H (2009) Sourcing and procurement as driving forces for sustainable business. The Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative, Utrecht
Wade ASI, Asase A, Hadley P, Mason J, Ofori-Frimpong K, Preece D, Spring N, Norris K (2010) Management strategies for maximizing carbon storage and tree species diversity in cocoa-growing landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138:324–334
Web sites of organizations and initiatives referenced
Cadbury: www.cadbury.com/ourresponsibilities/cadburycocoapartnership/Pages/cadburycocoapartnership.aspx
Common Code of the Coffee Community (4C): www.4c-coffeeassociation.org/en/code-of-conduct.php?PHPSESSID=5133hqii3cdmsl9m90pgsuljg2
Conservation International: www.conservation.org
Fair-trade Labelling Organization: www.fairtrade.net
International Federation of Organic Agricultural Organizations: www.ifoam.org
International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling (ISEAL) Alliance: www.isealalliance.org
Kraft Foods: www.kraftfoodscompany.com/About/sustainability/ag_supply_chain.aspx
The Landscape Measures Resource Center Initiative: www.landscapemeasures.org
LOHAS movement: www.lohas.com/about.html
Mars, Incorporated: www.mars.com/global/News+and+Media/News+archive/iMPACT.htm
National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia: www.cafedecolombia.com
Nespresso: www.ecolaboration.com/aaa/en/coffee/aaa
Rainforest Alliance: http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/agriculture.cfm?id=standards_farms
Root Capital: www.rootcapital.org
Starbucks: www.starbucks.ca/en-a/_Social+Responsibility/C.A.F.E.+Practices.htm; www.starbucks.com/sharedplanet/ethicalInternal.aspx?story=conservationInternational
Smithsonian Bird Friendly: www.nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds
Sustainable Tree Crop Program: www.treecrops.org
Sustainable Agriculture Network: www.sanstandards.org
Unilever: www.unilever.com/sustainability/environment/agriculture
Utz Certified: www.utzcertified.org
Verde Ventures: www.conservation.org/sites/verdeventures
World Cocoa Foundation: www.worldcocoafoundation.org/sustainability-principles-and-goals/
Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges the financial support provided by Kraft Foods and Mars, Incorporated, to develop Rainforest Alliance’s certification approach in cocoa and coffee producing countries. The content of this paper derives largely from the learning in implementing this work between 2006 and 2010.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Millard, E. Incorporating Agroforestry Approaches into Commodity Value Chains. Environmental Management 48, 365–377 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9685-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9685-5