Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Eumelanin-based coloration and fitness parameters in birds: a meta-analysis

  • Review
  • Published:
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although melanin is the most common pigment in animal integuments, the adaptive function of variation in melanin-based coloration remains poorly understood. The individual fitness returns associated with melanin pigments can be variable across species as these pigments can have physical and biological protective properties and genes involved in melanogenesis may vary in the intensity of pleiotropic effects. Moreover, dark and pale coloration can also enhance camouflage in alternative habitats and melanin-based coloration can be involved in social interactions. We investigated whether darker or paler individuals achieve a higher fitness in birds, a taxon wherein associations between melanin-based coloration and fitness parameters have been studied in a large number of species. A meta-analysis showed that the degree of melanin-based coloration was not significantly associated with laying date, clutch size, brood size, and survival across 26 species. Similar results were found when restricting the analyses to non-sexually dimorphic birds, colour polymorphic and monomorphic species, in passerines and non-passerines and in species for which inter-individual variation in melanism is due to colour intensity. However, eumelanic coloration was positively associated with clutch and brood size in sexually dimorphic species and those that vary in the size of black patches, respectively. Given that greater extent of melanin-based coloration was positively associated with reproductive parameters and survival in some species but negatively in other species, we conclude that in birds the sign and magnitude of selection exerted on melanin-based coloration is species- or trait-specific.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alström P, Ericson PGP, Olsson U, Sundberg P (2006) Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. Mol Phyl Evol 38:381–297

    Google Scholar 

  • Amat JA (2005) Does the expression of a male plumage trait in female Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) signal individual quality? J Ornithol 146:287–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson TM, vonHoldt BM, Candille SI, Musiani M, Greco C, Stahler DR, Smith DW, Padhukasahasram B, Randi E, Leonard JA, Bustamante CD, Ostrander EA, Tang H, Wayne RK, Barsh GS (2009) Molecular and evolutionary history of melanism in North American gray wolves. Science 323:1339–1343

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Antoniazza S, Burri R, Fumagalli L, Goudet J, Roulin A (2010) Local adaptation maintains clinal variation in melanin-based coloration of European barn owls (Tyto alba). Evolution 64:1944–1954

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bize P, Gasparini J, Klopfenstein A, Altwegg R, Roulin A (2006) Melanin-based coloration is a nondirectionally selected sex-specific signal of offspring development in the Alpine Swift. Evolution 60:2370–2380

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bókony V, Liker A, Lendvai AZ, Kulcsár A (2008) Risk-taking and survival in the house sparrow Passer domesticus: are plumage ornaments costly? Ibis 150:139–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond AB, Kamil AC (1998) Apostatic selection by blue jays produces balanced polymorphism in virtual prey. Nature 395:594–596

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonneaud C, Mazuc J, Gonzalez G, Haussy C, Chastel O, Sorci G (2003) Assessing the cost of mounting an immune response. Am Nat 161:367–379

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonser RHC (1995) Melanin and the abrasion resistance of feathers. Condor 97:590–591

    Google Scholar 

  • Borenstein M, Hedges LV, Higgins JPT, Rothstein HR (2009) Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Bortolotti GR, Blas J, Negro JJ, Tella JL (2006) A complex plumage pattern as an honest social signal. Anim Behav 72:423–430

    Google Scholar 

  • Brommer JE, Ahola K, Karstinen T (2005) The colour of fitness: plumage coloration and lifetime reproductive success in the tawny owl. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 272:935–940

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown JW, Payne RB, Mindell DP (2007) Comment. Nuclear DNA does not reconcile ‘rocks’ and ‘clocks’ in Neoaves: a comment on Ericson et al. Biol Lett 3:257–259

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan KL, Evans MR, Goldsmith AR, Bryant DM, Rowe LV (2001) Testosterone influences basal metabolic rate in male house sparrows: a new cost of dominance signalling? Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 268:1337–1344

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burtt EH (1979) Tips on wings and other things. In: Burtt EH (ed) The behavioural significance of color. Garland STPM Press, New York, pp 75–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakarov N, Boerner M, Krüger O (2008) Fitness in common buzzards at the cross-point of opposite melanin-parasite interactions. Funct Ecol 22:1062–1069

    Google Scholar 

  • Childress RB, Bennun LA (2002) Sexual character intensity and its relationship to breeding timing, fecundity and mate choice in the great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo lucidus. J Avian Biol 33:23–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Clusella Trullas S, van Wyk JH, Spotila JR (2007) Thermal melanism in ectotherms. J Therm Biol 32:235–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooch G (1961) Ecological aspects of the blue-snow goose complex. Auk 78:72–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooke F, Findlay CS, Rockwell RF, Smith JA (1985) Life history studies of the lesser snow goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens): III. The selective value of plumage polymorphism: net fecundity. Evolution 39:165–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooke F, Rockwell RF, Lank DB (1995) The snow geese of La Pérouse Bay, natural selection in the wild. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Dale J (2000) Ornamental plumage does not signal male quality in red-billed queleas. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 267:2143–2149

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis JWF (1976) Breeding success and experience in the Arctic skua, Stercorarius parasiticus (L.). J Anim Ecol 45:531–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Doucet SM, Mennill DJ, Montgomerie R, Boag PT, Ratcliffe LM (2005) Achromatic plumage reflectance predicts reproductive success in male black-capped chickadees. Behav Ecol 16:218–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Ducrest A-L, Keller L, Roulin A (2008) Pleiotropy in the melanocortin system, coloration and behavioural syndromes. Trends Ecol Evol 23:502–510

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ericson P, Anderson C, Britton T, Elzanowski A, Johansson U, Källersjö M, Ohlson J, Parsons T, Zuccon D, Mayr G (2006) Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biol Lett 2:543–547

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fain MG, Houde P (2004) Parallel Radiations in the primary clades of birds. Evolution 58:2558–2573

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fargallo JA, Laaksonen T, Korpimäki E, Wakamatsu K (2007) A melanin-based trait reflects environmental growth conditions of nestling male Eurasian kestrels. Evol Ecol 21:157–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson-Lees J, Christie DA (2001) Raptors of the world. Helm Identification Guides, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitze PS, Richner H (2002) Differential effects of a parasite on ornamental structures based on melanins and carotenoids. Behav Ecol 13:401–407

    Google Scholar 

  • Galeotti P, Sacchi R (2003) Differential parasitaemia in the tawny owl (Strix aluco): effects of colour morph and habitat. J Zool 261:91–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Galván I, Alonso-Alvarez C (2008) An intracellular antioxidant determines the expression of a melanin-based signal in a bird. PLoS Biol 3:e3335

    Google Scholar 

  • Gasparini J, Bize P, Piault R, Kazumasa W, Blount J, Roulin A (2009) Strength and cost of mounting an immune response are associated with a heritable melanin-based color trait in female tawny owls. J Anim Ecol 78:608–616

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Götmark F (1987) White underparts in gull function as hunting camouflage. Anim Behav 35:1786–1792

    Google Scholar 

  • Götmark F (1993) Conspicuous coloration in male birds is favoured by predation in some species and disfavoured in others. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 253:143–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant BR (1990) The significance of subadult plumage in Darwin’s finches, Geospiza fortis. Behav Ecol 1:161–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant BR, Grant PR (1987) Mate choice in Darwin’s finches. Biol J Linn Soc 32:247–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith SC (2000) A trade-off between reproduction and a condition-dependent sexually selected ornament in the house sparrow Passer domesticus. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 267:1115–1119

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith SC, Owens IPF, Burke T (1999) Female choice and annual reproductive success favour less-ornamented male house sparrows. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 266:765–770

    Google Scholar 

  • Hackett SJ, Kimball RT, Reddy S, Bowie RCK, Braun EL, Braun MJ, Chojnowski JL, Cox WA, Han K-L, Harshman J, Huddleston CJ, Marks BD, Miglia KJ, Moore WS, Sheldon FH, Steadman DW, Witt CC, Yuri T (2008) A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history. Science 320:1763–1768

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanssen SV, Folstad I, Erikstad KE (2006) White plumage reflects individual quality in female eiders. Anim Behav 71:337–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanssen SA, Hasselquist D, Folstad I, Erikstad KE (2008) A label of health: a previous immune challenge is reflected in the expression of a female plumage trait. Biol Lett 4:379–381

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatch SA (1991) Evidence for color phase effects on the breeding and life history of northern fulmars. Condor 93:4090–4417

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra HE, Krenz JG, Nachman MW (2005) Local adaptation in the rock pocket mouse (Chaetodipus intermedius): natural selection and phylogenetic history of populations. Heredity 94:217–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horth L (2003) Melanic body colour and aggressive mating behaviour are correlated traits in male mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki). Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 266270:1033–1040

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JM, Lange CL, Mather PB, Robinson A (2002) A comparison of fitness components among different plumage morphs of the Australian Magpie. Gymnorhina tibicen Emu 102:331–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Järvi T, Røskaft E, Bakken M, Zumsteg B (1987) Evolution of variation in male secondary sexual characteristics. A test of eight hypotheses applied to pied flycatchers. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 20:161–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Jawor JM, Breitwisch R (2003) Melanin ornaments, honesty, and sexual selection. Auk 120:249–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen H, Sæther BE, Ringsby TH, Tufto J, Griffith SC, Ellegren H (2003) Sexual variation in heritability and genetic correlations of morphological traits in house sparrow (Passer domesticus). J Evol Biol 16:1296–1307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen H, Sæther BE, Ringsby TH, Tufto J, Griffith SC, Ellegren H (2004) Lifetime reproductive success in relation to morphology in the house sparrow Passer domesticus. J Anim Ecol 73:599–611

    Google Scholar 

  • Johannesson K, Ekendahl A (2002) Selective predation favouring cryptic individuals of marine snails (Littorina). Biol J Linn Soc 76:137–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson US, Fjeldså J, Bowie RCK (2008) Phylogenetic relationships within Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes): a review and a new molecular phlogeny based on three nuclear intron marklers. Mol Phyl Evol 48:858–876

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones JS, Leith BH, Rawlings P (1977) Polymorphism in Cepaea: a problem with too many solutions ? Annu Rev Ecol Syst 8:109–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimball RT, Braun EL (2008) A multigene phylogeny of Galliformes supports a single origin of erectile ability in non-feathered facial traits. J Avian Biol 39:438–445

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingma S, Szentirmai I, Székely T, Bókony V, Bleeker M, Liker A, Komdeur J (2008) Sexual selection and the function of a melanin-based plumage ornament in polygamous penduline tits Remiz pendulinus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62:1277–1288

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristín A, Valera F, Hoi C, Hoi H (2007) Do melanin-based tail patterns predict individual quality and sex in Lesser Grey Shrikes Lanius minor ? J Ornithol 148:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Lajeunesse MJ (2009) Meta-analysis and the comparative phylogenetic method. Am Nat 174:369–381

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lemon RE, Weary DM, Norris KJ (1992) Male morphology and behavior correlate with reproductive success in the American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 29:399–403

    Google Scholar 

  • Lendvai AZ, Liker A (2004) Male badge size is related to clutch volume in the Kentish plover. Ornis Hung 14:1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Losey JE, Uves AR, Harmon J, Ballantyne F, Brown C (1997) A polymorphism maintaine by opposite patterns of parasitism and predation. Nature 388:269–272

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lovette IJ, Bermingham E (2002) What is a wood-warbler? Molecular characterization of a monophyletic Parulidae. Auk 119:695–714

    Google Scholar 

  • Maddison WP, Maddison DR (2009) Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis. Version 2.6 http://mesquiteproject.org

  • McGraw KJ (2005) The antioxidant function of many animal pigments: are there consistent health benefits of sexually selected colourants? Anim Behav 69:757–764

    Google Scholar 

  • McGraw KJ, Hill GE (2000) Differential effects of endoparasitism on the expression of carotenoid- and melanin-based ornamental coloration. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 267:1525–1531

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGraw KJ, Mackillop EA, Dale J, Hauber ME (2002) Different colors reveal different information: how nutritional stress affects the expression of melanin- and structurally based ornamental plumage. J Exp Biol 205:3747–3755

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKinnon EA, Robertson RJ (2008) The signal function of a melanin-based plumage ornament in golden-winged warblers. Wilson J Ornithol 120:366–370

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh JA (2001) The antimicrobial properties of melanocytes, melanosomes and melanin and the evolution of black skin. J Theor Biol 212:101–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller A, Flensted-Jensen E, Mardal W (2007) Black beak tip coloration as a signal of phenotypic quality in a migratory seabird. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 61:1561–1571

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller A, Jennions M (2002) How much variance can be explained by ecologists and evolutionary biologists? Oecologia 132:492–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller AP, Jennions MD (2001) Testing and adjusting for publication bias. Trends Ecol Evol 16:580–586

    Google Scholar 

  • Mundy NI, Badcock NS, Hart T, Scribner K, Janssen K, Nadeau NJ (2004) Conserved genetic basis of a quantitative plumage trait involved in mate choice. Science 303:1870–1873

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakagawa S, Ockendon N, Gillespie DOS, Hatchwell BJ, Burke T (2007) Assessing the function of house sparrows’ bib size using a flexible meta-analysis method. Behav Ecol 18:831–840

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris KJ (1990) Female choice and the evolution of the conspicuous plumage coloration of monogamous male great tits. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 26:129–138

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donald P (1983) The arctic skua. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Paradis E, Claude J, Strimmer K (2004) APE: analysis of phylogenetics and evolution in R language Bioinformatics. Bioinformatics 20:289–290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Philips RA, Furness RW (1998) Polymorphism, mating preferences and sexual selection in the Arctic skua. J Zool Lond 245:245–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Potti J, Montalvo S (1991) Male colour variation in Spanish pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca. Ibis 133:293–299

    Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team (2009) R: a language and environment for statistical computing

  • Rice WR, Gaines SD (1994a) Extending nondirectional heterogeneity tests to evaluate simply ordered alterntive hypotheses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:225–226

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rice WR, Gaines SD (1994b) The ordered-heterogeneity family of tests. Biometrics 50:746–746

    Google Scholar 

  • Rockwell RF, Scott Findlay C, Cooke F, Smith JA (1985) Life history studies of the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens): IV. The selective value of plumage polymorphism: net viability, the timing of maturation, and breeding propensity. Evolution 39:178–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg MS (2005) The file-drawer problem revisited: a general weighted method for calculating fail-safe numbers in meta-analysis. Evolution 59:464–468

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg MS, Adams DC, Gurevith J (2000) MetaWin: statistical software for meta-analysis. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal R (1991) Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Applied Social Research Methods. Sage Publications, Newbury

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A (2004) The evolution, maintenance and adaptive function of genetic colour polymorphism in birds. Biol Rev 79:815–848

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Altwegg R (2007) Breeding rate is associated with pheomelanism in male and with eumelanism in female barn owls. Behav Ecol 18:563–570

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Richner H, Ducrest A-L (1998) Genetic, environmental and condition-dependent effects on female and male plumage ornamentation. Evolution 52:1451–1460

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Ducrest A-L, Ravussin P-A, Altwegg R (2003) Female plumage coloration covaries with reproductive strategies in the tawny owl. J Avian Biol 34:251–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Wink M (2004) Predator-prey polymorphism: relationships and the evolution of colour a comparative analysis in diurnal raptors. Biol J Linn Soc 81:565–578

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Almais B, Rossi-Pedruzzi A, Ducrest A-L, Wakamatsu K, Miksik I, Blount JD, Jenni-Eiermann S, Jenni L (2008) Corticosterone mediates the condition-dependent component of melanin-based coloration. Anim Behav 75:1351–1358

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Wink M, Salamin N (2009) Selection on a eumelanic ornament is stronger in the tropics than in temperate zones in the worldwide-distributed barn owl. J Evol Biol 22:345–354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roulin A, Altwegg R, Jensen H, Steinsland I, Schaub M (2010) Sex-dependent selection on an autosomal melanic female ornament promotes the evolution of sex ratio bias. Ecol Lett 13:616–626

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson MJ (2002) Estimating absolute rates of molecular evolution and divergence times: a penalized likelihood approach. Mol Biol Evol 19:101–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder J, Lourenço P, van der Velde M, Hooijmeijer J, Both C, Piersma T (2009) A possible case of contemporary selection leading to a decrease in sexual plumage dimorphism in a grassland-breeding shorebird. Behav Ecol 20:797–807

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon BC, West SA (2004) Maternal dominance, maternal condition, and offspring sex ratio in ungulate mammals. Am Nat 163:40–54

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siefferman L, Hill GE (2005) Evidence for sexual selection on strucutral plumage coloration in female Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis). Evolution 59:1819–1828

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ (1995) BIOMETRY: The principles and practice of statistics in biological research. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Swofford DL (2003) PAUP*: Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (*and other methods). Version 4. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland

    Google Scholar 

  • Tella JL, Forero MG, Donazar JA, Hiraldo F (1997) Is the expression of male traits in female lesser kestrels related to sexual selection? Ethology 103:72–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD, Higgins DG, Gibson TJ (1994) CLUSTAL W: improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice. Nucleic Acids Res 22:4673–4680

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thusius KJ, Peterson KA, Dunn PO, Whittingham LA (2001) Male mask size is correlated with mating success in the common yellowthroat. Anim Behav 62:435–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Treplin S, Siegert R, Bleidorn C, Thompson HS, Fotso R, Tiedemann R (2008) Molecular phylogeny of songbirds (Aves: Passeriformes) and the relative utility of common nuclear marker loci. Cladistics 24:328–349

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaclav R, Hoi H (2002) Different reproductive tactics in house sparrows signalled by badge size: is there a benefit to being average? Ethology 108:569–582

    Google Scholar 

  • Vergara P, Fargallo JA, Martínez-Padilla J, Lemus JA (2009) Inter-annual variation and information content of melanin-based coloration in female Eurasian kestrels. Biol J Linn Soc 97:781–790

    Google Scholar 

  • West SA, Shuker DM, Sheldon BC (2005) Sex-ratio adjustment when relatives interact: a test of constraints on adaptation. Evolution 59:1211–1228

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The Swiss National Science Foundation financed the study (grant no. 3100AO_120517 to A. R.). We thank Dean Adams for providing support on the methods of phylogenetic meta-analysis, Marie-Amélie Girardet for screening the book of Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) to count raptorial species that darken or whiten with age, and Nicolas Salamin, Tim Parker, Kevin McGraw and three anonymous referees for comments on the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Joël Meunier, Susana Figueiredo Pinto, Reto Burri & Alexandre Roulin

  2. Zoological Institute, Evolutionary Biology, University of Basel, 4056, Basel, Switzerland

    Joël Meunier

Authors
  1. Joël Meunier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Susana Figueiredo Pinto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Reto Burri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Alexandre Roulin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexandre Roulin.

Additional information

Communicated by K. McGraw

J. Meunier and S. Figueiredo Pinto contributed equally to this paper.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM. 1

(DOC 214 kb)

ESM. 2

(DOC 138 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Meunier, J., Figueiredo Pinto, S., Burri, R. et al. Eumelanin-based coloration and fitness parameters in birds: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 65, 559–567 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-010-1092-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-010-1092-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation