Abstract
Microorganism in drinking water distribution system may colonize in biofilms. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene diversities were analyzed in both water and biofilms grown on taps with three different materials (polyvinyl chloride (PVC), stainless steel, and cast iron) from a local drinking water distribution system. In total, five clone libraries (440 sequences) were obtained. The taxonomic composition of the microbial communities was found to be dominated by members of Proteobacteria (65.9–98.9 %), broadly distributed among the classes Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and Gammaproteobacteria. Other bacterial groups included Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, and Deinococcus-Thermus. Moreover, a small proportion of unclassified bacteria (3.5–10.6 %) were also found. This investigation revealed that the bacterial communities in biofilms appeared much more diversified than expected and more care should be taken to the taps with high bacterial diversity. Also, regular monitor of outflow water would be useful as potentially pathogenic bacteria were detected. In addition, microbial richness and diversity in taps ranked in the order as: PVC < stainless steel < cast iron. All the results interpreted that PVC would be a potentially suitable material for use as tap component in drinking water distribution system.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Jasser A (2007) Chlorine decay in drinking-water transmission and distribution systems: Pipe service age effect. Water Res 41:387–396. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.032
Ashelford KE, Chuzhanova NA, Fry JC, Jones AJ, Weightman AJ (2006) New screening software shows that most recent large 16S rRNA gene clone libraries contain chimeras. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:5734–5741. doi:10.1128/AEM.00556-06
Bachmann R, Edyvean R (2005) Biofouling: an historic and contemporary review of its causes, consequences and control in drinking water distribution systems. Biofilms 2:197–227. doi:10.1017/S1479050506001979
Buesing N, Filippini M, Burgmann H, Gessner MO (2009) Microbial communities in contrasting freshwater marsh microhabitats. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 69:84–97. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00692.x
Chowdhury S (2011) Heterotrophic bacteria in drinking water distribution system: a review. Environ Monit Assess 182:1–51. doi:10.1007/s10661-011-2407-x
Dong ZH, Liu T, Liu HF (2011) Influence of EPS isolated from thermophilic sulphate-reducing bacteria on carbon steel corrosion. Biofouling 27:487–495. doi:10.1080/08927014.2011.584369
Emtiazi F, Schwartz T, Marten SM, Krolla-Sidenstein P, Obst U (2004) Investigation of natural biofilms formed during the production of drinking water from surface water embankment filtration. Water Res 38:1197–1206. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2003.10.056
Felfoldi T, Heeger Z, Vargha M, Marialigeti K (2010) Detection of potentially pathogenic bacteria in the drinking water distribution system of a hospital in Hungary. Clin Microbiol Infect 16:89–92. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02795.x
Flemming HC, Ridgway H (2009) Biofilm control: conventional and alternative approaches. Mar Ind Biofouling 4:103–117. doi:10.1007/7142_2008_20
Giao MS, Azevedo N, Wilks SA, Vieira M, Keevil CW (2008) Persistence of Helicobacter pylori in heterotrophic drinking-water biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:5898–5904. doi:10.1128/AEM.00827-08
Hammes F, Berney M, Wang Y, Vital M, Koster O, Egli T (2008) Flow-cytometric total bacterial cell counts as a descriptive microbiological parameter for drinking water treatment processes. Water Res 42:269–277. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.009
Hedayati M, Mayahi S, Movahedi M, Shokohi T (2011) Study on fungal flora of tap water as a potential reservoir of fungi in hospitals in Sari city. Iran J Med Mycol 21:10–14. doi:10.1016/j.mycmed.2010.12.001
Henne K, Kahlisch L, Brettar I, Hofle MG (2012) Comparison of structure and composition of bacterial core communities in mature drinking water biofilms and bulk water of a local network. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:3530–3538. doi:10.1128/AEM.06373-11
Hsu BM, Lin CL, Shih FC (2009) Survey of pathogenic free-living amoebae and Legionella spp. in mud spring recreation area. Water Res 43:2817–2828. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.04.002
Kerr CJ, Osborn KS, Robson GD, Handley PS (1999) The relationship between pipe material and biofilm formation in a laboratory model system. J Appl Microbiol 85:29S–38S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1998.tb05280.x
Kormas KA, Neofitou C, Pachiadaki M, Koufostathi E (2010) Changes of the bacterial assemblages throughout an urban drinking water distribution system. Environ Monit Assess 165:27–38. doi:10.1007/s10661-009-0924-7
Lau HY, Ashbolt NJ (2009) The role of biofilms and protozoa in Legionella pathogenesis: implications for drinking water. J Appl Microbiol 107:368–378. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04208.x
Lautenschlager K, Boon N, Wang Y, Egli T, Hammes F (2010) Overnight stagnation of drinking water in household taps induces microbial growth and changes in community composition. Water Res 44:4868–4877. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.07.032
Lee J, Lee C, Hugunin K, Maute C, Dysko R (2010) Bacteria from drinking water supply and their fate in gastrointestinal tracts of germ-free mice: a phylogenetic comparison study. Water Res 44:5050–5058. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.07.027
Lehtola MJ, Miettinen IT, Keinanen MM, Kekki TK, Laine O, Hirvonen A, Vartiainen T, Martikainen PJ (2004) Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes. Water Res 38:3769–3779. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2004.06.024
Lehtola MJ, Miettinen IT, Martikainen PJ (2002) Biofilm formation in drinking water affected by low concentrations of phosphorus. Can J Microbiol 48:494–499. doi:10.1139/W02-048
Lehtola MJ, Torvinen E, Kusnetsov J, Pitkanen T, Maunula L, Von Bonsdorff CH, Martikainen PJ, Wilks SA, Keevil CW, Miettinen IT (2007) Survival of Mycobacterium avium, Legionella pneumophila, Escherichia coli, and Caliciviruses in drinking water-associated biofilms grown under high-shear turbulent flow. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:2854–2859. doi:10.1128/AEM.02916-06
MacDonald R, Brozel V (2000) Community analysis of bacterial biofilms in a simulated recirculating cooling-water system by fluorescent in situ hybridization with rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. Water Res 34:2439–2446. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00409-1
Manz W, Wendt-Potthoff K, Neu T, Szewzyk U, Lawrence J (1999) Phylogenetic composition, spatial structure, and dynamics of lotic bacterial biofilms investigated by fluorescent in situ hybridization and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Microb Ecol 37:225–237. doi:10.1007/s002489900148
Martiny AC, Albrechtsen HJ, Arvin E, Molin S (2005) Identification of bacteria in biofilm and bulk water samples from a nonchlorinated model drinking water distribution system: detection of a large nitrite-oxidizing population associated with Nitrospira spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:8611–8617. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.12.8611-8617.2005
Mathieu L, Bouteleux C, Fass S, Angel E, Block J (2009) Reversible shift in the alpha-, beta- and gamma-proteobacteria populations of drinking water biofilms during discontinuous chlorination. Water Res 43:3375–3386. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.005
Moissl C, Osman S, La Duc MT, Dekas A, Brodie E, DeSantis T, Venkateswaran K (2007) Molecular bacterial community analysis of clean rooms where spacecraft are assembled. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 61:509–521. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2007.00360.x
Momba M, Kfir R, Venter SN, Cloete TE (2000) Overview of biofilm formation in distribution systems and its impact on the deterioration of water quality. Water SA 26:59–66
Momba MNB, Makala N (2004) Comparing the effect of various pipe materials on biofilm formation in chlorinated and combined chlorine-chloraminated water systems. Water SA 30:175–182
Moritz MM, Flemming HC, Wingender J (2010) Integration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Legionella pneumophila in drinking water biofilms grown on domestic plumbing materials. Int J Hyg Environ Health 213:190–197. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.05.003
Niquette P, Servais P, Savoir R (2000) Impacts of pipe materials on densities of fixed bacterial biomass in a drinking water distribution system. Water Res 34:1952–1956. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00307-3
Pang CM, Liu WT (2007) Community structure analysis of reverse osmosis membrane biofilms and the significance of Rhizobiales bacteria in biofouling. Environ Sci Technol 41:4728–4734. doi:10.1021/es0701614
Paquin J, Block J, Haudidier K, Hartemann P, Colin F, Miazga J, Levi Y (1992) Effect of chlorine on the bacterial colonisation of a model distribution System. J Water Sci 5:399–414
Percival SL, Beech IB, Edyvean RGJ, Knapp JS, Wales DS (1997) Biofilm development on 304 and 316 stainless steels in a potable water system. Water Environ J 11:289–294. doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.1997.tb00131.x
Percival SL, Knapp JS, Edyvean R, Wales DS (1998) Biofilm development on stainless steel in mains water. Water Res 32:243–253. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(97)00132-2
Phung NT, Lee J, Kang KH, Chang IS, Gadd GM, Kim BH (2004) Analysis of microbial diversity in oligotrophic microbial fuel cells using 16S rDNA sequences. FEMS Microbiol Lett 233:77–82. doi:10.1016/j.femsle.2004.01.041
Poitelon JB, Joyeux M, Welt B, Duguet JP, Prestel E, DuBow MS (2010) Variations of bacterial 16S rDNA phylotypes prior to and after chlorination for drinking water production from two surface water treatment plants. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 37:117–128. doi:10.1007/s10295-009-0653-5
Poitelon JB, Joyeux M, Welt B, Duguet JP, Prestel E, Lespinet O, DuBow MS (2009) Assessment of phylogenetic diversity of bacterial microflora in drinking water using serial analysis of ribosomal sequence tags. Water Res 43:4197–4206. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.07.020
Revetta RP, Matlib RS, Santo Domingo JW (2011) 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis of drinking water using RNA and DNA extracts as targets for clone library development. Curr Microbiol 63:1–10. doi:10.1007/s00284-011-9938-9
Revetta RP, Pemberton A, Lamendella R, Iker B, Santo Domingo JW (2010) Identification of bacterial populations in drinking water using 16S rRNA-based sequence analyses. Water Res 44:1353–1360. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.11.008
Roeder RS, Lenz J, Tarne P, Gebel J, Exner M, Szewzyk U (2010) Long-term effects of disinfectants on the community composition of drinking water biofilms. Int J Hyg Environ Health 213:183–189. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.04.007
Rudi K, Tannas T, Vatn M (2009) Temporal and spatial diversity of the tap water microbiota in a Norwegian hospital. Appl Environ Microbiol 75:7855–7857. doi:10.1128/AEM.01174-09
Schwartz T, Hoffmann S, Obst U (1998) Formation and bacterial composition of young, natural biofilms obtained from public bank-filtered drinking water systems. Water Res 32:2787–2797. doi:10.1016/s0043-1354(98)00026-8
Simoes LC, Simoes M, Oliveira R, Vieira MJ (2007) Potential of the adhesion of bacteria isolated from drinking water to materials. J Basic Microbiol 47:174–183. doi:10.1002/jobm.200610224
Teng F, Guan YT, Zhu WP (2008) Effect of biofilm on cast iron pipe corrosion in drinking water distribution system: corrosion scales characterization and microbial community structure investigation. Corros Sci 50:2816–2823. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2008.07.008
Von Baum H, Bommer M, Forke A, Holz J, Frenz P, Wellinghausen N (2010) Is domestic tap water a risk for infections in neutropenic patients? Infect 38:181–186. doi:10.1007/s15010-010-0005-4
Waines PL, Moate R, Moody AJ, Allen M, Bradley G (2011) The effect of material choice on biofilm formation in a model warm water distribution system. Biofouling 27:1161–1174. doi:10.1080/08927014.2011.636807
Wang H, Hu C, Hu X, Yang M, Qu J (2012) Effects of disinfectant and biofilm on the corrosion of cast iron pipes in a reclaimed water distribution system. Water Res 46:1070–1078. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.12.001
Williams M, Domingo J, Meckes M, Kelty C, Rochon H (2004) Phylogenetic diversity of drinking water bacteria in a distribution system simulator. J Appl Microbiol 96:954–964. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02229.x
Wingender J, Flemming HC (2011) Biofilms in drinking water and their role as reservoir for pathogens. Int J Hyg Environ Health 214:417–423. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.05.009
Yu J, Kim D, Lee T (2010) Microbial diversity in biofilms on water distribution pipes of different materials. Water Sci Technol 61:163–171. doi:10.2166/wst.2010.813
Zhang Z, Stout JE, Yu VL, Vidic R (2008) Effect of pipe corrosion scales on chlorine dioxide consumption in drinking water distribution systems. Water Res 42:129–136. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.054
Acknowledgments
We express gratitude to Ms. Ping Wang, Mr. Zhimin Yu, and members of the local drinking water plant for helping in sampling. This work was supported by the Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Y025014EA2) and the Natural Science Foundation of China (No.51208501).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lin, W., Yu, Z., Chen, X. et al. Molecular characterization of natural biofilms from household taps with different materials: PVC, stainless steel, and cast iron in drinking water distribution system. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97, 8393–8401 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4557-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4557-3