Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Steps in the construction of underwater coral nursery, an essential component in reef restoration acts

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Marine Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Many coral reefs worldwide are rapidly declining, but efficient restoration techniques are not yet available. Here, we evaluate methodologies for reef restoration based on the “gardening concept”. A floating mid-water prototype nursery was placed at 6 m depth (14 m above sea-bottom) within the nutrient-enriched environment of a fish farm (Eilat, Red Sea). Ten colonies from five branching coral species provided 6,813 fragments (0.5–3 cm height). The fragments, each attached to a plastic pin, were inserted into plastic nets that were tied to a rope-net floating nursery. After 144 nursery days, only 13.1% of the fragments died and 21.2% were detached by mechanical forces. Small colonies ready for transplantation developed within 144–200 days. Ramets’ ecological volumes increased 13–46 folds and their heights by a factor of 3.5. After 306 days, the ecological volumes of the colonies increased 147–163 fold as compared to original volumes (revealing a daily growth rate constant of 1.67% during the first 5–10 months) and height values by a factor of six. Building and maintenance costs of the nursery were low. This nursery prototype demonstrates the feasibility of the coral “gardening concept” by fulfilling several important needs, namely, mass production of coral colonies at low costs, high survivorship, fast growth, short nursery phase and improved methodologies for handling farmed colonies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abelson A, Shlesinger Y (2002) Comparison of the development of coral and fish communities on rock-aggregated artificial reefs in Eilat, Red Sea. J Mar Sci 59:122–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Abram NJ, Gagan MK, McCulloch MT, Chappell J, Hantoro WS (2003) Coral reef death during the 1997 Indian Ocean dipole linked to Indonesian wildfires. Science 301:952–955

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allison GW, Lubchenco J, Carr MH (1998) Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation. Ecol Appl 8:79–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Folke C, Nyström M (2004) Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature 429:827–833

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berg DR (1995) Riparian silviculture system design and assessment in the Pacific Northwest Cascade Mountains, USA. Ecol Appl 5:87–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bongiorni L, Shafir S, Angel D, Rinkevich B (2003) Survival, growth and reproduction of two hermatypic corals subjected to in situ fish farm nutrient enrichment. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 253:137–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick-Furman NE (1996) Reef coral diversity and global change. Global Change Biol 2:559–568

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan HT, Chong PF, Ng TP (1988) Silviculture efforts in restoring mangroves in degraded coastal areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Galaxea 7:307–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards AJ, Clark S (1998) Coral transplantation: A useful management tool or misguided meddling? Mar Pollut Bull 37:8–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein N, Rinkevich B (2001) From isolated ramets to coral colonies: the significance of colony pattern formation in reef restoration practices. Basic Appl Ecol 2:219–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein N, Bak RPM, Rinkevich B (2001) Strategies for gardening denuded reef areas: the applicability of using different types of coral material for reef restoration. Rest Ecol 9:432–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein N, Bak RPM, Rinkevich B (2003) Applying forest restoration principles to coral reef rehabilitation. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 13:387–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox HE, Pet JS, Dahuri R, Caldwell RL (2002) Coral reef restoration after blast fishing in Indonesia. Proc 9th Int Coral Reef Symp 2:969–976

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox HE, Pet JS, Dahuri R, Caldwell RL (2003) Recovery in rubble fields: long-term impacts of blast fishing. Mar Pollut Bull 46:1024–1031

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner TA, Côté IM, Gill JA, Grant A, Watkinson AR (2003) Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science 301:958–960

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason DF, Brazeau DA, Munfus D (2001) Can self-fertilizing coral species be used to enhance restoration of Caribbean reefs? Bull Mar Sci 69:933–943

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatziolos ME, Hooten AJ, Fodor M (eds) (1998) Coral reefs: challenges and opportunities for sustainable management. World Bank, Washington

  • Hilbretz WH, Goreau TJ (1996) A method for enhancing the growth of aquatic organisms and structure created thereby. http://www.uspto.gov. US patent #08/374993

  • Hodgson G (1999) A global assessment of human effects on coral reefs. Mar Pollut Bull 38:345–355

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Baird AH, Bellwood DR, Card M, Connolly SR, Folke C, Grosberg R Hoegh-Guldberg O, Jackson JBC, Kleypas J, Lough JM, Marshall P, Nyström M, Palumbi SR, Pandolfi JM, Rosen B, Roughgarden J (2003) Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301:929–933

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Keough MJ, Quinn GP (2000) Legislative vs. practical protection of an intertidal shoreline in South Eastern Australia. Ecol Appl 10:871–881

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khoon GW, Eong OJ (1995) The use of demographic studies in mangrove silviculture. Hydrobiologia 295:1–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindahl U (2003) Coral reef rehabilitation through transplantation of staghorn corals: effects of artificial stabilization and mechanical damages. Coral reefs 22:217–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lirman D, Miller MW (2003) Modeling and monitoring tools to assess recovery status and convergence rates between restored and undisturbed coral reef habitats. Restor Ecol 11:448–456

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClanahan TR (1999) Is there a future for coral reef parks in poor tropical countries? Coral Reefs 18:321–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz-Prosper AL, Bowden-Kerby A, Ruiz H, Tirado O, Caban A, Sanchez G, Crespo JC (2001) Planting small massive corals on small artificial concrete reefs or dead coral heads. Bull Mar Sci 69:1047–1051

    Google Scholar 

  • Pandolfi JM, Bradbury RH, Sala E, Hughes TP, Bjorndal KA, Cooke RG, McArdle D, McClenachan L, Newman MJH, Paredes G, Warner RR, Jackson JBC (2003) Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science 301:955–958

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pickering H, Whitmarsh D, Jensen A (1998) Artificial reefs as a tool to aid rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems: investigating the potential. Mar Pollut Bull 37:505–514

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raymundo LJ (2001) Mediation of growth by conspecific neighbors and the effects of site in transplanted fragments of the coral Porites attenuata Nemenzo in the central Philippines. Coral reefs 20:263–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinkevich B (1995) Restoration strategies for coral reefs damaged by recreational activities: the use of sexual and asexual recruits. Restor Ecol 3:241–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinkevich B (2000) Steps towards the evaluation of coral reef restoration by using small branch fragments. Mar Biol 136:807–812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rinkevich B (2005) Conservation of coral reefs through active restoration measures: recent approaches and last decade progress. Environ Sci Technol 39:4333–4342

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rinkevich B, Loya Y (1983) Short term fate photosynthetic products in a hermatypic coral. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 73:175–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Risk MJ (1999) Paradise lost: how marine science failed the world’s coral reefs. Mar Freshw Res 50:831–837

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose KA (2000) Why are quantitative relationships between environmental quality and fish populations so illusive? Ecol Appl 10:367–385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabater MG, Yap HT (2002) Growth and survival of coral transplants with and without electrochemical deposition of CaCO3. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 272:131–146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher H (2002) Use of artificial reefs with special reference to the rehabilitation of coral reefs. Bonner Zool Monogr 50:81–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafir S, Van Rijn J, Rinkevich B (2001) Nubbins of coral colonies: a novel approach for the development of inland broodstocks. Aquarium Sci Conserv 3:183–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman RL, Gilliam DS, Spieler RE (2001) Site-dependent differences in artificial reef function: implications for coral restoration. Bull Mar Sci 69:1053–1056

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith LD, Hughes TP (1999) An experimental assessment of survival re-attachment and fecundity of coral fragments. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 235:147–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soong K, Chen T (2003) Coral transplantation: regeneration and growth of Acropora fragments in a nursery. Restor Ecol 11:62–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spieler RE, Gilliam DS, Sherman RL (2001) Artificial substrate and coral reef restoration: what do we need to know to know what we need. Bull Mar Sci 69:1013–1030

    Google Scholar 

  • van Treeck P, Schumacher H (1999) Artificial reefs created by electrolysis and coral transplantation: an approach ensuring the compatibility of environmental protection and diving tourism. Estuarine Coast Shelf Sci 49:75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vowell J (1994) Florida’s silviculture best management practices program. Lake Reserv Manag 9:126–127

    Google Scholar 

  • White AT, Vogt HP, Arin T (2000) Philippine coral reefs under threat: the economic losses caused by reef destruction. Mar Pollut Bull 40:598–605

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson CR (2002) Status of coral reefs of the world: 2002. Australian Institute of Marine Science

  • Yap HT (2000) The case for restoration of tropical ecosystems. Ocean Coast Manag 43:841–851

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young TP (2000) Restoration ecology and conservation biology. Biol Cons 92:73–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank D. Gada, M. Zooaretz, D. Brand, N. Berkovich and J. Botechiano for their help and to two referees for constructive suggestions. The study was supported by the BARD US-Israel Bi-National Agricultural Research and Development (3319-02 R), by the World Bank/GEF project and by INCO-DEV project (REEFRES)

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, National Institute of Oceanography, Haifa, Israel

    Shai Shafir & Baruch Rinkevich

  2. Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel

    Shai Shafir & Jaap Van Rijn

Authors
  1. Shai Shafir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jaap Van Rijn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Baruch Rinkevich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shai Shafir.

Additional information

Communicated by O. Kinne, Oldendorf/Luhe

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Shafir, S., Van Rijn, J. & Rinkevich, B. Steps in the construction of underwater coral nursery, an essential component in reef restoration acts. Mar Biol 149, 679–687 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-005-0236-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-005-0236-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation