Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Anticipatory postural adjustments in children with typical motor development

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Experimental Brain Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) play an important role in the performance of many activities requiring the maintenance of vertical posture. However, little is known about how children utilize APAs during self-induced postural perturbations. A group of children, aged 7–16 years, with typical motor development, performed various arm movements while standing on a force platform. APAs were measured by recording the electromyographic activity of six trunk and leg muscles on both sides of the body and displacement of center of pressure (COP). Anticipatory bursts of activity in the dorsal muscle groups of the trunk and legs and suppression in the ventral muscle groups as well as posterior COP displacement were found during the performance of bilateral shoulder flexion. Conversely, during bilateral shoulder extension, the COP displacement was anterior, and APAs were reversed showing bursts of activity in the ventral muscle groups and suppression in the dorsal muscles. During right and left reciprocal arm movements, COP displacement was minimal and APAs were generated in the dorsal muscle groups on the side of the forward moving arm and in the ventral muscle groups on the side of the arm moving into extension. However this pattern reversed for lower leg muscles, where APAs were generated in the ventral muscles on the side of forward moving arm and in the dorsal muscle on the side of the arm moving into extension. The results of this study indicate that children with typical motor development are able to generate APAs, produce task-specific sequencing of muscle activity and differentiate between perturbations in the sagittal and transverse planes. The results of this study indicate that by at least age 7, children who are typically developing demonstrate the ability to generate patterns of anticipatory muscle activation and suppression, along with center of pressure changes, similar to those reported in healthy adults.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adkin AL, Frank JS et al (2002) Fear of falling modifies anticipatory postural control. Exp Brain Res 143(2):160–170

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexandrov AV, Frolov AA et al (2005) Feedback equilibrium control during human standing. Biol Cybern 93(5):309–322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angulo-Barroso RM, Wu J et al (2008) Long-term effect of different treadmill interventions on gait development in new walkers with Down syndrome. Gait Posture 27(2):231–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Latash ML (1995a) Directional specificity of postural muscles in feed-forward postural reactions during fast voluntary arm movements. Exp Brain Res 103(2):323–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Latash ML (1995b) The role of motor action in anticipatory postural adjustments studied with self-induced and externally triggered perturbations. Exp Brain Res 106(2):291–300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Nicholas JJ et al (1997) Anticipatory postural adjustments during standing in below-the-knee amputees. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 12(1):52–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Forrest WR et al (1998) Anticipatory postural adjustments in conditions of postural instability. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 109(4):350–359

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Ota T et al (2001a) Anticipatory postural adjustments associated with lateral and rotational perturbations during standing. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 11(1):39–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aruin AS, Shiratori T et al (2001b) The role of action in postural preparation for loading and unloading in standing subjects. Exp Brain Res 138(4):458–466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Assaiante C, Woollacott M et al (2000) Development of postural adjustment during gait initiation: kinematic and EMG analysis. J Mot Behav 32(3):211–226

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barela JA, Jeka JJ et al (1999) The use of somatosensory information during the acquisition of independent upright stance. Infant Motor Behavior 22(1):87–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basmajian JV (1980) Electromyography–dynamic gross anatomy: a review. Am J Anat 159(3):245–260

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belen’kii VE, Gurfinkel VS et al (1967) Control elements of voluntary movements. Biofizika 12(1):135–141

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bleuse S, Cassim F et al (2005) Vertical torque allows recording of anticipatory postural adjustments associated with slow, arm-raising movements. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 20(7):693–699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouisset M, Zattara M (1981) A sequence of postural reactions precedes voluntary movements. Neurosci Lett 22:263–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouisset S, Zattara M (1987) Biomechanical study of the programming of anticipatory postural adjustments associated with voluntary movement. J Biomech 20(8):735–742

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouisset S, Richardson J et al (2000) Do anticipatory postural adjustments occurring in different segments of the postural chain follow the same organisational rule for different task movement velocities, independently of the inertial load value? Exp Brain Res 132(1):79–86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burtner PA, Woollacott MH et al (1999) Stance balance control with orthoses in a group of children with spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 41(11):748–757

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickstein R, Shefi S et al (2004) Anticipatory postural adjustment in selected trunk muscles in post stroke hemiparetic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85(2):261–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dufosse M, Hugon M et al (1985) Postural forearm changes induced by predictable in time or voluntary triggered unloading in man. Exp Brain Res 60(2):330–334

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedli WG, Hallett M et al (1984) Postural adjustments associated with rapid voluntary arm movements 1. Electromyographic data. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47(6):611–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gantchev GN, Dimitrova DM (1996) Anticipatory postural adjustments associated with arm movements during balancing on unstable support surface. Int J Psychophysiol 22(1–2):117–122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grasso R, Assaiante C et al (1998) Development of anticipatory orienting strategies during locomotor tasks in children. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 22(4):533–539

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haas G, Diener HC et al (1989) Development of feedback and feedforward control of upright stance. Dev Med Child Neurol 31(4):481–488

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hadders-Algra M, Brogren E et al (1998) Development of postural control–differences between ventral and dorsal muscles? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 22(4):501–506

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn ME, Farley AM et al (2005) Neural network estimation of balance control during locomotion. J Biomech 38(4):717–724

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay L, Redon C (1999) Feedforward versus feedback control in children and adults subjected to a postural disturbance. Exp Brain Res 125(2):153–162

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay L, Redon C (2001) Development of postural adaptation to arm raising. Exp Brain Res 139(2):224–232

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedberg A, Carlberg EB et al (2005) Development of postural adjustments in sitting position during the first half year of life. Dev Med Child Neurol 47(5):312–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedberg A, Schmitz C et al (2007) Early development of postural adjustments in standing with and without support. Exp Brain Res 178(4):439–449

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry SM, Fung J et al (1998) EMG responses to maintain stance during multidirectional surface translations. J Neurophysiol 80(4):1939–1950

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges PW, Cresswell AG et al (2000) Three dimensional preparatory trunk motion precedes asymmetrical upper limb movement. Gait Posture 11(2):92–101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horak FB, Dimitrova D et al (2005) Direction-specific postural instability in subjects with Parkinson’s disease. Exp Neurol 193(2):504–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jover M, Schmitz C et al (2006) Anticipatory postural adjustments in a bimanual load-lifting task in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neurosci Lett 403(3):271–275

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jucaite A, Fernell E et al (2003) Deficient coordination of associated postural adjustments during a lifting task in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol 45(11):731–742

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latash ML, Aruin AS et al (1995) Anticipatory postural adjustments during self inflicted and predictable perturbations in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 58(3):326–334

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ledebt A, Bril B et al (1998) The build-up of anticipatory behaviour. An analysis of the development of gait initiation in children. Exp Brain Res 120(1):9–17

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee LJ, Coppieters MW et al (2009) Anticipatory postural adjustments to arm movement reveal complex control of paraspinal muscles in the thorax. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 19(1):46–54

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Aruin AS (2008) Anticipatory postural adjustments in conditions of simulated reduced gravity. Gait Posture 28(4):538–544

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu W, Zaino CA et al (2007) Anticipatory postural adjustments in children with cerebral palsy and children with typical development. Pediatr Phys Ther 19:188–195

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macpherson JM, Horak FB et al (1989) Stance dependence of automatic postural adjustments in humans. Exp Brain Res 78(3):557–566

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maki BE, McIlroy WE (1996) Postural control in the older adult. Clin Geriatr Med 12(4):635–658

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malouin F, Richards CL (2000) Preparatory adjustments during gait initiation in 4–6-year-old children. Gait Posture 11(3):239–253

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martineau J, Schmitz C et al (2004) Impairment of a cortical event-related desynchronisation during a bimanual load-lifting task in children with autistic disorder. Neurosci Lett 367(3):298–303

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Massion J (1992) Movement, posture and equilibrium: interaction and coordination. Prog Neurobiol 38(1):35–56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFadyen BJ, Malouin F et al (2001) Anticipatory locomotor control for obstacle avoidance in mid-childhood aged children. Gait Posture 13(1):7–16

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park S, Horak FB et al (2004) Postural feedback responses scale with biomechanical constraints in human standing. Exp Brain Res 154(4):417–427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riach CL, Hayes KC (1987) Maturation of postural sway in young children. Dev Med Child Neurol 29(5):650–658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riach CL, Hayes KC (1990) Anticipatory postural control in children. J Mot Behav 22(2):250–266

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riach C, Lucy SD (1987) Adjustments to posture prior to arm movement. In: Jonsson B et al (eds) International series on biomechanics, biomechanic X-A. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 459–463

    Google Scholar 

  • Roncesvalles MN, Woollacott MH et al (2001) Development of lower extremity kinetics for balance control in infants and young children. J Mot Behav 33(2):180–192

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santos MJ, Aruin AS (2008) Effects of lateral perturbations and changing stance conditions on anticipatory postural adjustment. J Electromyogr Kinesiol

  • Santos MJ, Kanekar N et al (2010) The role of anticipatory postural adjustments in compensatory control of posture: 1. Electromyographic analysis. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 20(3):388–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz C, Martin N et al (1999) Development of anticipatory postural adjustments in a bimanual load-lifting task in children. Exp Brain Res 126(2):200–204

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz C, Martin N et al (2002) Building anticipatory postural adjustment during childhood: a kinematic and electromyographic analysis of unloading in children from 4 to 8 years of age. Exp Brain Res 142(3):354–364

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz C, Martineau J et al (2003) Motor control and children with autism: deficit of anticipatory function? Neurosci Lett 348(1):17–20

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiratori T, Aruin AS (2004) Anticipatory postural adjustments associated with rotational perturbations while standing on fixed and free-rotating supports. Clin Neurophysiol 115(4):797–806

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiratori T, Latash M (2000) The roles of proximal and distal muscles in anticipatory postural adjustments under asymmetrical perturbations and during standing on rollerskates. Clin Neurophysiol 111(4):613–623

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiratori T, Latash ML (2001) Anticipatory postural adjustments during load catching by standing subjects. Clin Neurophysiol 112(7):1250–1265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott MH (1985) The growth of stability: postural control from a development perspective. J Mot Behav 17(2):131–147

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shumway-Cook A, Hutchinson S et al (2003) Effect of balance training on recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 45(9):591–602

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slijper H, Latash M (2000) The effects of instability and additional hand support on anticipatory postural adjustments in leg, trunk, and arm muscles during standing. Exp Brain Res 135(1):81–93

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sveistrup H, Woollacott MH (1996) Longitudinal development of the automatic postural response in infants. J Mot Behav 28(1):58–70

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sveistrup H, Woollacott MH (1997) Practice modifies the developing automatic postural response. Exp Brain Res 114(1):33–43

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich DA, Lloyd MC et al (2008) Effects of intensity of treadmill training on developmental outcomes and stepping in infants with Down syndrome: a randomized trial. Phys Ther 88(1):114–122

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vallis LA, McFadyen BJ (2005) Children use different anticipatory control strategies than adults to circumvent an obstacle in the travel path. Exp Brain Res 167(1):119–127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Fits IB, Klip AW et al (1999a) Postural adjustments during spontaneous and goal-directed arm movements in the first half year of life. Behav Brain Res 106(1–2):75–90

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Fits IB, Otten E et al (1999b) The development of postural adjustments during reaching in 6- to 18-month-old infants. Evidence for two transitions. Exp Brain Res 126(4):517–528

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westcott SL, Burtner PA (2004) Postural control in children: implications for pediatric practice. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 24(1–2):5–55

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter DA, Prince F et al (1996) Unified theory regarding A/P and M/L balance in quiet stance. J Neurophysiol 75(6):2334–2343

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witherington D, von Hofsten C, Rosander K, Robinette A, Woollacott MW, Bertenthal BI (2002) The developmental of anticipatory postural adjustments in infancy. Infancy 3(4):495–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woollacott M, Shumway-Cook A et al (2005) Effect of balance training on muscle activity used in recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Dev Med Child Neurol 47(7):455–461

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Looper J et al (2007) Exploring effects of different treadmill interventions on walking onset and gait patterns in infants with Down syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 49(11):839–845

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Ulrich DA et al (2008) Strategy adoption and locomotor adjustment in obstacle clearance of newly walking toddlers with Down syndrome after different treadmill interventions. Exp Brain Res 186(2):261–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zattara M, Bouisset S (1988) Posturo-kinetic organisation during the early phase of voluntary upper limb movement. 1. Normal subjects. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 51(7):956–965

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the children and families who participated in this study and also Shruti Joshi, PT, MS, Xioyan Li, PhD, Marcio Santos, PT, PhD and Veena Iyengar, PT, MS for assistance with data collection. This study was supported in part by a grant from the Neuro-Developmental Treatment Association, Laguna Beach, CA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA

    Gay L. Girolami

  2. Department of Physical Therapy (MC 898), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1919 W. Taylor St., Chicago, IL, 60612, USA

    Alexander S. Aruin

  3. Pathways Center, Glenview, IL, 60026, USA

    Gay L. Girolami & Takako Shiratori

Authors
  1. Gay L. Girolami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Takako Shiratori
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alexander S. Aruin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexander S. Aruin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Girolami, G.L., Shiratori, T. & Aruin, A.S. Anticipatory postural adjustments in children with typical motor development. Exp Brain Res 205, 153–165 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2347-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2347-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation