Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Bacillus anthracis: toxicology, epidemiology and current rapid-detection methods

  • Review
  • Published:
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

B. anthracis, the causative agent for anthrax, has been well studied for over 150 years. Due to the genetic similarities among various Bacillus species, as well as its existence in both a spore form and a vegetative state, the detection and specific identification of B. anthracis have been proven to require complex techniques and/or laborious methods. With the heightened interest in the organism as a potential biological threat agent, a large number of interesting detection technologies have recently been developed, including methods involving immunological and nucleic acid-based assay formats. The technologies range from culture-based methods to portable Total Analysis Systems based on real-time PCR. This review with 170 references provides a brief background on the toxicology and epidemiology of B. anthracis, discusses challenges associated with its detection related to genetic similarities to other species, and reviews immunological and, with greater emphasis, nucleic acid-based detection systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Brossier F, Mock M (2001) Toxicon 39:1747–1755

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Brachman P (1986) Inhalation anthrax. In: Merchant, James A (ed) Occupational respiratory diseases. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D. C.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Inglesby T, Henderson D, Bartlett J, Ascher M, Eitzen E, Friedlander A, Hauer J, McDade J, Osterholm M, O’Toole T, Parker G, Perl T, Russel P, Tonat K (1999) JAMA 281:1735–1745

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Jamie W (2002) Prim Care Update OB GYNS 9:117–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Brachman P, Kaufmann A, (1998) Anthrax. In: Evans Alfred S, Feldman Harry A (eds) Bacterial infections of humans, epidemiology and control. Plenum Medical, New York, pp 95–111

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bhatnagar R, Batra S (2001) Crit Rev Microbiol 27:167–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Mock M, Fouet A (2001) Annu Rev Microbiol 55:647–671

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Sjostedt A, Eriksson U, Ramisse V, Garrigue H (1997) FEMS Microbiol Ecol 23:159–168

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002) Public health dispatch: Update: cutaneous anthrax in a laboratory worker—Texas, 2002. MMWR 51:482

  10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000) Human ingestion of Bacillus anthracis contaminated meat—Minnesota, August 2000. MMWR 49:813–816

    Google Scholar 

  11. Dixon T, Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hanna P (1999) New Eng J Med 341:815–826

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M (1994) Science 266:1202–1208

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Wang S, Wen J, Zhou Y, Zhang Z, Yang R, Zhang J, Chen J, Zhang X (2004) Biosens Bioelectron 20:806–812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Friedlander A (1986) J Biol Chem 261:7123

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Leppla S (1982) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:3162–3166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Hanna P, Acosta D, Collier R (1993) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:10198–10201

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Duesbery N, Craig P, Leppla S, Gordon V, Klimpel K, Copeland T, Ahn N, Oskarsson M, Fukasawa K, Paull K, Wonde G (1998) Science 280:734

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Sternbach G (2003) J Emer Med 24:463–467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Schmid G, Kaufman A (2002) Clin Microbiol Infect 8:479–488

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hinton M (2000) Vet J 159:124–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Davies J (1982) Cent Afr J Med 28:291–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Plotkin S, Brachman P, Utell M, Bumford F, Atchison M (1960) Am J Med 29:992–1001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Abramova F, Grinberg L, Yampolskaya O, Walker D (1993) Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 90:2291–2294

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hugh-Jones M (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:189–191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Hugh-Jones M (2002) World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Public Health. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University

  26. Sirisanthana T, Nelson K, Ezzell J, Abshire T (1998) Am J Trop Med Hyg 39:575–581

    Google Scholar 

  27. Kunanusont C, Limpakarnjanarat K, Foy H (1990) Ann Trop Med Parasitol 84:507–512

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Kohout E, Sehat A, Ashraf M (1964) Am J Med Sci 247:565

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Turner A, Galvin J, Rubira R, Miller G (1999) J Appl Micro 87:196–199

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hawley R, Eitzen E (2001) Annu Rev Microbiol 55:235–253

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Christopher G, Cieslak T, Pavlin J, Eitzen E (1997) JAMA 278:412–417

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Watson A, Keir D (1994) Epidemiology-Infections 113:479–490

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Cole L (1996) Sci Am 275:60–65

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Tucker J (1999) Emerg Infect Dis 5:498–504

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the surveillance and control of anthrax in humans and animals. Available from URL: http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/bw/whoemczdi986.htm Accessed 2/7/05

  36. Weyant R, Ezzell J, Popovic T (2001) Basic laboratory protocols for the presumptive identification of Bacillus anthracis. Centers for Disease Control

  37. Holmes R. Available from URL: http://www.mheducation.com/HOL2_chapters/HOL_chapters/chapter141.htm. Accessed: 6/4/03

  38. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/anthrax_g.htm Accessed 6/15/05

  39. Helgason E, Okstad OA, Caugant DA, Johansen HA, Fouet A, Mock M, Hegna I, Kolsto (2000) Appl Environ Microbiol 66:2627–2630

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Roloff, Heike, et al. (1995) The taxonomic relationship between B. anthracis and the B. cereus group, investigated by DNA-DNA hybridization and DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF). Salisbury Med Bull 87 (Suppl):38–39

    Google Scholar 

  41. Fasanella A, Losito S, Trotta T, Adone R, Massa S, Ciuchini F, Chiocco D (2001) Vaccine 19:4214–4218

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ivins BE, Ezzell JW, Jemski J, Hedlund KW, Ristroph JD, Leppla SH (1986) Infect Immun 52:454–458

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Thorne CB (1985) Genetics of Bacillus anthracis. In: Leive L (ed) Microbiology. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., pp 56–62

    Google Scholar 

  44. Harrell LJ, Andersen GL, Wilson KH (1995) J Clin Micro 33:1847–1850

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Priest, Fergus G (1993) Systematics and ecology of Bacillus. In: Sonenshein, Abraham L (ed) Bacillus subtilis and other gram-positive bacteria. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Thorne CB (1993) Bacillus anthracis. In Sonenshein, Abraham L (ed) Bacillus subtilis and other gram-positive bacteria. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., pp 113–124

    Google Scholar 

  47. Blackwood K, Turenne CY, Harmsen D, Kabani AM (2004) J Clin Microbiol 42:1626–1630

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ash C, Collins MD (1992) FEMS Microbiol Lett 73:75–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Ash C, Farrow JA, Dorsch M, Stackebrandt E, Collins MD (1991) Int J Syst Bacteriol 41:343–346

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Henderson I, Dongzheng Y, Turnbull PCB (1995) FEMS Microbiol Lett 128:113–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Schupp JM, Klevytska AM, Zinser G, Price LB, Keim P (2000) J Bacteriol 182:3989–3997

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Radnedge L, Agron PG, Hill KK, Jackson PJ, Ticknor LO, Keim P, Andersen GL (2003) Appl Environ Microbiol 69:2755–2764

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Daffonchio D, Borin S, Frova G, Gallo R, Mori E, Fani R, Sorlini C (1999) Appl Environ Microbiol 65:1298–1303

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Patra G, Sylvestre P, Ramisse V, Therasse J, Guesdon J (1996) FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 15:223–231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Qi Y, Patra G, Liang X, Williams L, Rose S, Redkar R, DelVecchio V (2001) Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3720–3727

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Beyer W, Pocivalsek S, Ohm RB (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:229–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Henderson I, Duggleby CJ, Turnbull PCB (1994) Int J Sys Bacteriol 44:99–105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Keim P, Kalif A, Schupp J, Hill K, Travis SE, Richmond K, Adair DM, Hugh-Jones M, Kuske CR, Jackson P (1997) J Bacteriol 179:818–824

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Jackson PJ, Hill KK, Laker MT, Ticknor LO, Keim P (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:263–269

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Ryu C, Lee K, Hawng HJ, Yoo CK, Seong WK, Oh HB (2005) Appl Environ Microbiol 71:4664–4671

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Andersen GL, Simchock JM, Wilson KH (1996) J Bacteriol 178:377–384

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Smith KL, DeVos V, Bryden H, Price LB, Hugh-Jones ME, Keim P (2000) J Clin Microbiol 38:3780–3784

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Stratis-Cullum DN, Griffin GD, Mobley J, Vass AA, Vo-Dinh T (2003) Anal Chem 75:275–280

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Farrell S, Halsall HB, Heineman WR (2005) Anal Chem 77:549–555

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Turnbull P (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:237–240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Knisely R (1966) J Bacteriol 92:784–786

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Turnbull P (1991) Vaccine 9:533–539

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Titball R, Turnbull P, Hutson R (1991) J Appl Bacteriol 70:9S–18S

    Google Scholar 

  69. Patra G, Vaissaire J, Weber-Levy M, Le Doujet C, Mock M (1998) J Clin Microbiol 36:3412–3414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Redmond C, Pearce M, Manchee R, Berdal B (1998) Nature 393:747–748

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Iqbal SS, Mayo MW, Bruno JG, Bronk BV, Batt CA, Chambers JP (2000) Biosens Bioelectron 15:549–578

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Lamanna C, Eisler D (1960) J Bacteriol 79:435–441

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Longchamp P, Leighton T (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:246–249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Phillips AP, Ezzell JW (1989) J Appl Bacteriol 66:419–432

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Phillips AP, Martin KL (1983) Appl Environ Microbiol 46:1430–1432

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Phillips AP, Martin KL (1982) J Immunol Methods 49:271–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Phillips AP, Martin KL, Cross NL, Drake RG (1984) J Immunol Methods 70:75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Bruno JG, Yu H (1996) Appl Environ Microbiol 62:3474–3476

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Ezzell JW, Abshire TG, Little SF, Lidgerding BC, Brown C (1990) J Clin Microbiol 28:223–231

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Stopa PJ (2000) Cytometry 41:237–244

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. De BK, Bragg SL, Sanden GN, Wilson KE, Diem LA, Marston CK et al (2002) Emerg Infect Dis 8:1060–1065

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Taitt CR, Anderson GP, Lingerfelt BM, Feldstein MJ, Ligler FS (2002) Anal Chem 74:6114–6120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Swanson ER, Fosnocht DE (2000) J Emerg Med 18:229–232

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Sastry KS, Tuteja U, Santhosh PK, Lalitha MK, Batra HV (2003) J Med Microbiol 52:47–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Buchanan TM, Feeley JC, Hayes PS, Brachman PS (1971) J Immunol 107:1631–1636

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Quinn CP, Semenova VA, Elie CM, Romero-Steiner S, Greene C, Li H, et al (2002) Emerg Infect Dis 8:1103–1110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Harrison LH, Ezzell JW, Abshire TG, Kidd S, Kaufmann AF (1989) J Infect Dis 160:706–710

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Johnson-Winegar A (1984) J Clin Microbiol 20:357–361

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Iacono-Connors LC, Novak J, Rossi C, Mangiafico J, Ksiazek T (1994) Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1:78–82

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Turnbull PCB, Broster MG, Carman JA, Manchee RJ, Melling J (1986) Infect Immun 52:356–363

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Turnbull PCB, Leppla SH, Broster MG, Quinn CP, Melling J (1988) Med Microbiol Immunol 177:293–303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Turnbull PCB, Doganay M, Lindeque PM, Aygen B, McLaughlin J (1992) Epidemiol Infect 108:299–313

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Shlyakhov E, Rubinstein E (1996) Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 15:242–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Turnbull P, Kramer J (1991) Bacillus In: Balows, Hausler, Herrmann, Isenberg, Shadomy (eds) Manual of clinical microbiology, 5th edition. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., pp 296–303

    Google Scholar 

  95. Greene C , Semenova V, Steiner S, Elie R, Pinner C, Sejvar J, Dull P, Stephens D, Jernigan J, Tucker N, Quinn C (2002) Rapid adaptation of a serologic assay for the bioterrorism-related anthrax outbreak: October–December 2001. International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases

  96. http://www.luminexcorp.com/01_xMAPTechnology/08_Tutorials/How_xmap_works. Accessed 4/7/05

  97. Biagini RE, Sammons DL, Smith JP, MacKenzie BA, Striley CAF, Semenova V, Steward-Clark E, Stamey K, Freeman AE, Quinn CPQ, Snawder JE (2004) Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 11:50–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Angelety LH, Wright GG (1971) Appl Microbiol 21:157–159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Pombo M, Berthold I, Gingrich E, Jaramillo M, Leef M, Sirota L, Hsu H, Arciniega J (2004) Biologicals 32:157–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Little SF, Webster WM, Norris SL, Andrews GP (2004) Biologicals 32:62–69

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Adams T, Osborn S, Rijpkema S (2005) Vaccine 23:4517–4520

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Farrell S, Halsall HB, Heineman WR (2005) Analyst 130:489–497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Zahavy E, Fisher M, Bromberg A, Olshevsky U (2003) Appl Environ Microbiol 69:2330–2339

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Gatto-Menking DL, Yu H, Bruno JG, Goode MT, Miller M, Zulich AW (1995) Biosens Bioelectron 10:501–507

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Dang JL, Heroux K, Kearney J, Arasteh A, Gostomski M, Emanuel PA (2001) Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3665–3670

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Rucker VC, Havenstrite KL, Herr AE (2005) Anal Biochem 339:262–270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Sastry KS, Tuteja U, Batra HV (2003) Indian J Exp Biol 41:123–128

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Rubina AY, Dyukova VI, Dementieva EI, Stomakhin AA, Nesmeyanov VA, Grishin EV, Zasedatelev AS (2005) Anal Biochem 340:317–319

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Oggioni M, Meacci F, Carattoli A, Ciervo A, Orru G, Cassone A, Pozzi G (2002) J Clin Microbiol 40:3956–3963

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Makino S, Cheun H (2003) J Microbiol Methods 53:141–147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Levi K, Higham J, Coates D, Hamlyn P (2003) Lett Appl Microbiol 36:418–422

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Shangkuan Y, Chang Y, Yang J, Lin H, Shaio M (2001) Lett Appl Microbiol 32:139–145

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Adone R, Pasquali P, La Rosa G, Marianelli C, Muscillo M, Fasanella A, Francia M, Ciuchini F (2002) J Appl Microbiol 93:117–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Ellerbrok H, Nattermann H, Özel M, Beutin L, Appel B, Pauli G (2002) FEMS Microbiol Lett 214:51–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Makino SI, Iinuma-Okada Y, Maruyama T, Ezaki T, Sasakawa C, Yoshikawa M (1993) J Clin Microbiol 31:547–551

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Ramisse V, Patra G, Vaissaire J, Mock M (1999) J Appl Microbiol 87:224–228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Volokhov D, Pomerantsev A, Kivovich V, Rasooly A, Chizhikov V (2004) Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 49:163–171

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Jackson PJ, Walthers EA, Kalif AS, Richmond KL, Adair DM, Hill KK, Kuske CR, Andersen GR, Wilson KH, Hugh-Jones M, Keim P (1997) Appl Environ Microbiol 63:1400–1405

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Drago LA, Lombardi A, Vecchi ED, Gismondo MR (2002) J Clin Microbiol 40:4399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Ko KS, Kim JM, Kim JW, Jung BY, Kim W, Kim IJ, Kook YH (2003) J Clin Microbiol 41:2908–2914

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Hurtle W, Bode E, Kulesh DA, Kaplan RS, Garrison J, Bridge D, House M, Frye MS, Loveless B, Norwood D (2004) J Clin Microbiol 42:179–185

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Cherif A, Borin S, Rizzi A, Ouzari H, Boudabous A, Daffonchio D (2002) J Appl Microbiol 93:456–462

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Liu WT, Mirzabekov AD, Stahl DA (2001) Environ Microbiol 3:619–629

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Sacchi CT, Whitney AM, Mayer LW, Morey R, Steigerwalt A, Boras A, Weyant RS, Popovic T (2002) Emerg Infect Dis 8:1117–1123

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Daffonochio D, Cherif A, Borin S (2000) Appl Environ Microbiol 66:5460–5468

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Bode E, Hurtle W, Norwood D (2004) J Clin Microbiol 42: 5825–5831

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Bourque SN, Valero JR, Lavoie MC, Levesque RC (1995) Appl Environ Microbiol 61:1623–1626

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Bell C, Uhl J, Hadfield T, David J, Meyer R, Smith T, Cockerill F (2002) J Clin Microbiol 40:2897–2902

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Hoffmaster AR, Meyer RF, Bowen MD, Marston CK, Weyant RS, Thurman K, Messenger SL, Minor EE, Winchell JM, Rassmussen MV, Newton BR, Parker JT, Morrill WE, McKinney N, Barnett GA, Sejvar JJ, Jernigan JA, Perkins BA, Popovic T (2002) Emerg Infect Dis 8:1178–1182

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Papaparaskevas J, Houhoula D, Papadimitriou M, Saraglou G, Legakis N, Zerva L (2004) Emerg Infect Dis 10:732–735

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Hoffmaster AR, Meyer RF, Bowen MD, Marston CK, Weyant RS, Thurman K, et al (2002) Emerg Infect Dis 8:1178–1182

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Belgrader P, Elkin C, Brown S, Nasarabadi S, Marshall G, Langlois R, Milanovich F, Colston B (2003) Anal Chem 75:3446–3450

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Cottingham K (2003) Anal Chem 75:289A

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Ramisse V, Patra G, Garrigue H, Guesdon J, Mock M (1996) FEMS Microbiol Lett 145:9–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Volokhov D, Pomerantsev A, Kivovich V, Rasoooly A, Chizhikov V (2004) Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 49:163–171

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Call DB, Loge F (2003) J Microbiol Methods 53:235–243

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Ye RWT, Bedzyk L, Croker K (2001) J Microbiol Methods 47:257–272

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Rao R, Visuri S, McBride M, Albala J, Matthews D, Coleman M (2004) J Proteome Res 3:736–742

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Knight J (2002) Nature 417:579

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. http://www.cepheid.com/Sites/cepheid/content.cfm?id=164. Accessed 4/7/05

  141. http://www.cepheid.com/Sites/cepheid/content.cfm?id=123. Accessed 4/7/05

  142. http://www.iquum.com/products/productsdescr.shtml. Accessed 4/7/05

  143. Hindson B, Brown S, Marshall G, McBride M, Makarewicz A, Gutierrez D, Wolcott D, Metz T, Madabhushi R, Dzenitis J, Colston B (2004) Anal Chem 76:3492–3497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Hindson B, McBride M, Makarewicz A, Henderer B, Setlur U, Smith S, Gutierrez D, Metz T, Nasarabadi S, Venkateswaran K, Farrow S, Colston B, Dzenitis J (2005) Anal Chem 77:284–289

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2004-11/ddoe-dbw111104.php. Accessed 4/7/05

  146. http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2002-01/dlnl-rfd062402.php. Accessed 4/7/05

  147. Higgins J, Nasarabari S, Karns J, Shelton D, Cooper M, Gbakima A, Koopman R, (2003) Biosens Bioelec 18:1115–1123

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Fasanella A, Losito S, Adone R, Ciuchini F, Trotta T, Altamura SA, Chiocco D, Ippolito G (2003) J Clin Microbiol 41:896–899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Luna VA, King D, Davis C, Rycerz T, Ewert M, Cannons A, Amuso P, Cattani J (2003) J Clin Microbiol 41:1252–1255

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Erickn M, Kornacki J (2003) J Food Protection 66:691–699

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Cook N (2003) J Microbiol Methods 53:165–174

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Keer J, Birch L (2003) J Microbiol Methods 1764:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  153. Vandamme A, Van Dooren S, Kok W, Goubau P, Fransen K, Kievits T, Schmit J, Clercq E, Desmyter J (1995) J Virol Methods 52:121–132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Simpkins SA, Chan AB, Hays J, Popping B, Cook N (2000) Lett Appl Microbiol 30:75–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Hartlefy HA, Baeumner AJ (2003) Anal Bioanal Chem 376:319–327

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Baeumner AJ, Leonard B, McElwee J, Montagna R (2004) Anal Bioanal Chem 380:15–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Virtanen M, Syvanen A, Oram J, Soderlund H, Ranki M (1984) J Clin Microbiol 20:1083–1088

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Ernest I, Alexandre I, Zammatteo N, Herman M, Houbion A, De Leener F, Fransen K, van der Groen G, Remacle J (2001) J Virol Methods 93:114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Casademont I, Bizet C, Chevrier D, Guesdon J (2000) Mol Cell Probes 14:233–240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Lee C, Panicker G, Bej A (2003) J Microbiol Methods 53:199–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Zhang Y, Kim H, Heller A (2003) Anal Chem 75:3267–3269

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Ishii J, Ghosh S (1993) Bioconjug Chem 4:34–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Alexandre I, Zammatteo N, Moris P, Brancart F, Remacle J (1997) J Virol Methods 66:113–122

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Fisher M, Harbron S, Taylorson C (1997) Anal Biochem 251:280–287

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Zhang Y, Pothukuchy A, Shin W, Kim Y, Heller A (2004) Anal Chem 76:4093–4097

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Erout M, Troesch A, Pichot C, Cros P (1996) Bioconjug Chem 7:568–575

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Corstjens P, Zuiderwijk M, Nilsson M, Feindt H, Niedbala R, Tanke H (2003) Anal Biochem 312:191–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Zhou X, Zhou J (2004) Anal Chem 76:5302–5312

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Zammatteo N, Alexandre I, Ernest I, Le L, Brancart F, Remacle (1997) Anal Biochem 253:180–189

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA

    Katie A. Edwards, Harriet A. Clancy & Antje J. Baeumner

Authors
  1. Katie A. Edwards
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Harriet A. Clancy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Antje J. Baeumner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Antje J. Baeumner.

Additional information

Harriet A. Clancy is currently on active duty with the U.S. Army’s 3rd COSCOM (Corps Support Command)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Edwards, K.A., Clancy, H.A. & Baeumner, A.J. Bacillus anthracis: toxicology, epidemiology and current rapid-detection methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 384, 73–84 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-005-0090-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-005-0090-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation