Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of cigarette smoking and abstinence on stroop task performance

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Psychopharmacology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rationale

Smokers report enhanced concentration after cigarette smoking and difficulty concentrating when abstinent from smoking. These perceived effects may contribute to smoking cessation failures, and if so, clarification of their cognitive bases could inform treatment strategies. Selective attention may be important in this regard, but earlier literature presents inconsistent findings on how smoking abstinence and resumption of smoking influence this cognitive function.

Objectives

We aimed to compare smokers and nonsmokers on selective attention, and in smokers, to test the effects of overnight abstinence from smoking and of acute smoking on selective attention.

Materials and methods

Smokers and nonsmokers (n = 43) performed a Stroop test (two test days, two test blocks per day). Smokers participated after overnight abstinence and also within 1-h of ad libitum smoking. Smokers each smoked a cigarette between test blocks on each day; nonsmokers did not.

Results

Smokers demonstrated longer response latencies for both congruent and incongruent stimuli after overnight than brief abstinence, but no deficit specifically related to selective attention. Whereas nonsmokers showed no changes in performance in the second test block, smoking between blocks reduced the Stroop effect when smokers were abstinent overnight.

Conclusions

These data are consistent with the hypothesis that abstinence from smoking among nicotine-dependent individuals has deleterious effects on cognitive performance, but do not indicate that selective attention is adversely effected. Improvement in selective attention after terminating abstinence with one cigarette may also contribute to smokers’ perceived enhanced ability to concentrate after smoking.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-fourth edition (DSM-IV). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldinger B, Hasenfratz M, Battig K (1995) Comparison of the effects of nicotine on a fixed rate and a subject-paced version of the rapid information processing task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 121:396–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banich MT, Milham MP, Atchley RA, Cohen NJ, Webb A, Wszalek T, Kramer AF, Liang Z, Barad V, Gullett D, Shah C, Brown C (2000) Prefrontal regions play a predominant role in imposing an attentional ‘set’: evidence from fMRI. Cogn Brain Res 10:1–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bench CJ, Frith CD, Grasby PM, Friston KJ, Paulesu E, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ (1993) Investigations of the functional anatomy of attention using the Stroop test. Neuropsychologia 31:907–922

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brody AL, Mandelkern MA, London ED, Olmstead RE, Farahi J, Scheibal D, Jou J, Allen V, Tiongson E, Chefer SI, Koren AO, Mukhin AG (2006) Cigarette smoking saturates brain alpha 4 beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:907–915

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Siegle GJ, Granholm E, Wong EC, Buxton RB (1999). Brain activation and pupil response during covert performance of the Stroop Color Word task. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 5:308–319

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carter CS, Mintun MA, Cohen JD (1995) Interference and facilitation effects during selective attention: an H2 15O PET study of Stroop task performance. Neuroimage 2:264–272

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cepeda-Benito A, Tiffany ST (1996) The use of a dual-task procedure for the assessment of cognitive effort associated with cigarette craving. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 127:155–163

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan E, Madonick S, Chakravorty S, Parwani A, Szilagyi S, Efferen T, Gonzenbach S, Angrist B, Rotrosen J (2001) Effects of smoking on acoustic startle and prepulse inhibition in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 156:266–272

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evins AE, Deckersbach T, Cather C, Freudenreich O, Culhane MA, Henderson DC, Green MF, Schoenfeld DA, Rigotti NA, Goff DC (2005) Independent effects of tobacco abstinence and bupropion on cognitive function in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 66:1184–1190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George TP, Vessicchio JC, Termine A, Sahady DM, Head CA, Pepper WT, Kosten TR, Wexler BE (2002) Effects of smoking abstinence on visuospatial working memory function in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 26:75–85

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gourlay SG, Benowitz NL (1997) Arteriovenous differences in plasma concentration of nicotine and catecholamines and related cardiovascular effects after smoking, nicotine nasal spray, and intravenous nicotine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 62:453–463

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gross J, Lee J, Stitzer ML (1997) Nicotine-containing versus de-nicotinized cigarettes: effects on craving and withdrawal. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 57:159–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber SA, Rogowska J, Holcomb P, Soraci S, Yurgelun-Todd D (2002) Stroop performance in normal control subjects: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 16:349–360

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatsukami DK, Hughes JR, Pickens RW, Svikis D (1984) Tobacco withdrawal symptoms: an experimental analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 84:231–236

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fägerström KO (1991) The Fägerström test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the Fägerström tolerance questionnaire. Br J Addict 86:1119–1127

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heishman SJ (1998) What aspects of human performance are truly enhanced by nicotine? Addiction 93:317–320

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Hatsukami D (1986) Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:289–294

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Hatsukami DK, Pickens RW, Krahn D, Malin S, Luknic A (1984) Effect of nicotine on the tobacco withdrawal syndrome. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 83:82–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Keenan RM, Yellin A (1989) Effect of tobacco withdrawal on sustained attention. Addict Behav 14:577–580

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Higgins ST, Hatsukami DK (1990) Effects of abstinence from tobacco: a critical review. In: Kozlowski LT, Annis HM, Cappell HD, Glaser FB, Goodstadt MS, Israel Y, Kalant H, Sellers EM, Vingilis ER (Eds) Research advances in alcohol and drug problems, vol. 10. Plenum Press, New York, pp 317–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilan AB, Polich J (2001) Tobacco smoking and event-related brain potentials in a Stroop task. Int J Psychophysiol 40:109–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvik ME, Madsen DC, Olmstead RE, Iwamoto-Schaap PN, Elins JL, Benowitz NL (2000) Nicotine blood levels and subjective craving for cigarettes. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 66:553–558

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnsen BH, Thayer JF, Laberg JC, Asbjornsen AE (1997) Attentional bias in active smokers, abstinent smokers, and nonsmokers. Addict Behav 22:813–817

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madden CJ, Zwaan RA (2001) The impact of smoking urges on working memory performance. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 9:418–424

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mancuso G, Warburton DM, Melen M, Sherwood N, Tirelli E (1999) Selective effects of nicotine on attentional processes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 146:199–204

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mead LA, Mayer AR, Bobholz JA, Woodley SJ, Cunningham JM, Hammeke TA, Rao SM (2002) Neural basis of the Stroop interference task: response competition or selective attention? J Int Neuropsychol Soc 8:735–742

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milham MP, Banich MT (2005) Anterior cingulate cortex: an fMRI analysis of conflict specificity and functional differentiation. Hum Brain Mapp 25:328–335

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mogg K, Bradley BP (2002) Selective processing of smoking-related cues in smokers: manipulation of deprivation level and comparison of three measures of processing bias. J Psychopharmacol 16:385–392

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paradiso KG, Steinbach JH (2003) Nicotine is highly effective at producing desensitization of rat alpha4beta2 neuronal nicotinic receptors. J Physiol 553:857–871

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pardo JV, Pardo PJ, Janer KW, Raichle ME (1990) The anterior cingulate cortex mediates processing selection in the Stroop attentional conflict paradigm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87:256–259

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parrott AC, Craig D (1992) Cigarette smoking and nicotine gum (0, 2 and 4 mg): effects upon four visual attention tasks. Neuropsychobiology 25:34–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perpina C, Hemsley D, Treasure J, de Silva P (1993) Is the selective information processing of food and body words specific to patients with eating disorders? Int J Eat Disord 14:359–366

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pickworth WB, Fant RV, Nelson RA, Rohrer MS, Henningfield JE (1999) Pharmacodynamic effects of new de-nicotinized cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 1:357–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pomerleau CS, Teuscher F, Goeters S, Pomerleau OF (1994) Effects of nicotine abstinence and menstrual phase on task performance. Addict Behav 19:357–362

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Provost SC, Woodward R (1991) Effects of nicotine gum on repeated administration of the Stroop test. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 104:536–540

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson ML, Houtsmuller EJ, Moolchan ET, Pickworth WB (2000) Placebo cigarettes in smoking research. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 8:326–332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rose JE (2005) Nicotine and nonnicotine factors in cigarette addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1–12

  • Rukstalis M, Jepson C, Patterson F, Lerman C (2005) Increases in hyperactive-impulsive symptoms predict relapse among smokers in nicotine replacement therapy. J Subst Abuse Treat 28:297–304

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell MAH, Peto J, Patel VA (1974) The classification of smoking by a factorial structure of motives. J R Stat Soc 137:313–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rusted JM, Caulfield D, King L, Goode A (2000) Moving out of the laboratory: does nicotine improve everyday attention? Behav Pharmacol 11:621–629

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco KA, Termine A, Seyal A, Dudas MM, Vessicchio JC, Krishnan-Sarin S, Jatlow PI, Wexler BE, George TP (2005) Effects of cigarette smoking on spatial working memory and attentional deficits in schizophrenia: involvement of nicotinic receptor mechanisms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:649–659

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sayette MA, Hufford MR (1994) Effects of cue exposure and deprivation on cognitive resources in smokers. J Abnorm Psychology 103:812–818

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiffman SM, Jarvik ME (1976) Smoking withdrawal symptoms in two weeks of abstinence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 50:35–39

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stormark KM, Laberg JC, Nordby H, Hugdahl K (2000) Alcoholics’ selective attention to alcohol stimuli: automated processing? J Stud Alcohol 61:18–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stroop JR (1935) Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol 18:643–662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SF, Kornblum S, Lauber EJ, Minoshima S, Koeppe RA (1997) Isolation of specific interference processing in the Stroop task: PET activation studies. Neuroimage 6:81–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton DM, Wesnes K (1984) Mechanisms for habitual substance use: food, alcohol, and cigarettes. In: Gale A, Edwards J (eds) Physiological correlates of human behavior, vol 1.: basic issues. Academic, London pp 277–297

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward MF, Wender PH, Reimherr FW (1993) The Wender Utah rating scale: an aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 150:885–890

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wesnes KA, Warburton DM (1978) The effects of cigarette smoking and nicotine tablets upon human attention. In: Thorton RE (ed) Smoking behaviour: physiological and psychological influences. Churchill-Livingston, London, pp 131–147

    Google Scholar 

  • West RJ, Jarvis MJ, Russell MA, Carruthers ME, Feyerabend C (1984) Effect of nicotine replacement on the cigarette withdrawal syndrome. Br J Addict 79:215–219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West RJ, Hajek P, Belcher M (1987) Time course of cigarette withdrawal symptoms during four weeks of treatment with nicotine chewing gum. Addict Behav 12:199–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westman EC, Behm FM, Rose JE (1996) Dissociating the nicotine and airway sensory effects of smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 53:309–315

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2003) World Health Report 2003. Available at http://www.who.int/whr/2003/en/overview_en.pdf

  • Xu X, Domino EF (2000) Effects of tobacco smoking on topographic EEG and Stroop test in smoking deprived smokers. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24:535–546

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zack M, Belsito L, Scher R, Eissenberg T, Corrigall WA (2001) Effects of abstinence and smoking on information processing in adolescent smokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 153:249–257

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaan RA, Stanfield RA, Madden CJ (2000) How persistent is the effect of smoking urges on cognitive performance? Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 8:518–523

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Supported by NIH grants RO1 DA014093.03 (EDL), RO1 DA015059 (ALB), and MOIRR 00865; UC Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program awards 10RT-0091 (EDL) and 11RT-0024 (ALB), a VA Merit Review Type I Award (ALB), and Philip Morris USA and Philip Morris International (EDL). Experiments comply with the current laws of the United States.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Catherine P. Domier, John R. Monterosso, Arthur L. Brody, Sara L. Simon, Adrianna Mendrek, Richard Olmstead, Murray E. Jarvik, Mark S. Cohen & Edythe D. London

  2. Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Edythe D. London

  3. Brain Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Edythe D. London

Authors
  1. Catherine P. Domier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John R. Monterosso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Arthur L. Brody
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sara L. Simon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Adrianna Mendrek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Richard Olmstead
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Murray E. Jarvik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Mark S. Cohen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Edythe D. London
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edythe D. London.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Domier, C.P., Monterosso, J.R., Brody, A.L. et al. Effects of cigarette smoking and abstinence on stroop task performance. Psychopharmacology 195, 1–9 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0869-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0869-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation