Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Habit formation and the loss of control of an internal clock: inverse relationship between the level of baseline training and the clock-speed enhancing effects of methamphetamine

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Psychopharmacology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Introduction

Drugs that modulate the effective level of dopamine (DA) in cortico-striatal circuits have been shown to alter the perception of time in the seconds-to-minutes range. How this relationship changes as a function of repeated experience with the reinforcement contingencies and the gradual adaptation of the underlying neural circuits remains unclear.

Materials and methods

The present study examined the clock-speed enhancing effects of methamphetamine (MAP 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg, ip) in groups of rats that received different levels of baseline training (20, 60, or 120 sessions) on a 50-s peak-interval (PI) procedure before initial drug administration.

Results

A curvilinear relationship was observed such that rats that received either minimal or intermediate levels of training (≤60 sessions) displayed dose- × training-related horizontal leftward shifts in their timing functions, suggesting that the speed of the internal clock was increased. In contrast, rats that had received an extended level of training (≥120 sessions) did not show this “classic” DA agonist curve-shift effect, but instead displayed a dose-dependent disruption of temporal control after MAP administration. A transition from DA-sensitive to DA-insensitive mechanisms is proposed to account for the loss of control of clock speed, as timing behaviors associated with the PI procedure gradually become learned habits through the strengthening of DA–glutamate connections.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abner RT, Edwards T, Douglas A, Brunner D (2001) Pharmacology of temporal cognition in two mouse strains. Int J Comp Psychol 14:189–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams CD (1982) Variation in the sensitivity of instrumental responding to reinforcer devaluation. Q J Exp Psychol B 34:77–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Amalric M, Ouagazzai A, Baunez C, Nieoullon A (1994) Functional interactions between glutamate and dopamine in the rat striatum. Neurochem Int 25:123–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Asgari K, Body S, Zhang Z, Fone KCF, Bradshaw CM, Szabadi E (2006) Effects of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptor stimulation on temporal differentiation performance in the fixed-interval peak procedure. Behav Processes 71:250–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bardo MT, Cain ME, Bylica K (2006) Effect of amphetamine on response inhibition in rats showing high or low response to novelty. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 85:98–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baunez C, Nieoullon A, Amalric M (1994) N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor blockade impairs behavioural performance of rats in a reaction time task: new evidence for glutamatergic-dopaminergic interactions in the striatum. Neuroscience 61:521–531

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bayley PJ, Bentley GD, Dawson GR (1998) The effects of selected antidepressant drugs on timing behaviour in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 136:114–122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Body S, Asgari K, Rickard JF, Zhang Z, Fone KCF, Bradshaw CM, Szabadi E (2005) Effects of quipazine and m-chlorophenylbiguanide (m-CPBG) on temporal differentiation: evidence for the involvement of 5-HT2A but not 5-HT3 receptors in interval timing behaviour. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 181:289–298

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buhusi CV (2003) Dopaminergic mechanisms of interval timing and attention. In: Meck WH (ed) Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 317–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhusi CV, Meck WH (2002) Differential effects of methamphetamine and haloperidol on the control of an internal clock. Behav Neurosci 116:291–297

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buhusi CV, Meck WH (2005) What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:755–765

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buhusi CV, Meck WH (2007) Effect of clozapine on interval timing and working memory for time in the peak-interval procedure with gaps. Behav Processes 22:159–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cardinal RN (2006) Neural systems implicated in delayed and probabilistic reinforcement. Neural Netw 19:1277–1301

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carelli RM, Wolske M, West MO (1997) Loss of lever press-related firing of rat striatal forelimb neurons after repeated sessions in a lever pressing task. J Neurosci 17:1804–1814

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cevik MO (2003) Effects of methamphetamine on duration discrimination. Behav Neurosci 117:774–784

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng RK, Liao RM (2007) Dopamine receptor antagonists reverse amphetamine-induced behavioral alteration on a differential reinforcement of low-rate (DRL) operant task in the rat. Chin J Physiol (in press)

  • Cheng RK, Ali YN, Meck WH (2007) Ketamine “unlocks” the reduced clock-speed effect of cocaine following extended training: evidence for dopamine-glutamate interactions in timing and time perception. Neurobiol Learn Mem (in press)

  • Cheng RK, MacDonald CJ, Meck WH (2006a) Differential effects of cocaine and ketamine on time estimation: implications for neurobiological models of interval timing. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 85:114–122

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng RK, Meck WH, Williams CL (2006b) α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and temporal memory: synergistic effects of combining prenatal choline and nicotine on reinforcement-induced resetting of an interval clock. Learn Mem 13:127–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung THC, Bezzina G, Asgari K, Body S, Fone, KCF, Bradshaw, CM, Szabadi E (2006) Evidence for a role of D1 dopamine receptors in d-amphetamine’s effect on timing behaviour in the free-operant psychophysical procedure. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 185:378–388

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang T-J, Al-Ruwaitea ASA, Mobini S, Ho M-Y, Bradshaw CM, Szabadi E (2000) The effect of d-amphetamine on performance on two operant timing schedules. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 150:170–184

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi WY, Balsam PD, Horvitz JC (2005) Extended habit training reduces dopamine mediation of appetitive response expression. J Neurosci 25:6729–6733

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Church RM, Miller KD, Meck WH, Gibbon J (1991) Symmetrical and asymmetrical sources of variance in temporal generalization. Anim Learn Behav 19:207–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Church RM, Meck WH, Gibbon J (1994) Application of scalar timing theory to individual trials. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Proc 20:135–155

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson A (1985) Actions and habits: the development of behavioural autonomy. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Sci 308:67–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson A, Nicholas DJ, Adams CD (1983) The effect of the instrumental training contingency on susceptibility to reinforcer devaluation. Q J Exp Psychol 35B:35–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson A, Balleine BW, Watt A, Gonzales F, Boakes RA (1995) Overtraining and the motivational control of instrumental action. Anim Learn Behav 22:197–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Drew MR, Fairhurst S, Malapani C, Horvitz JC, Balsam PD (2003) Effects of dopamine antagonists on the timing of two intervals. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 75:9–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eckerman DA, Segbefia D, Manning S, Breese GS (1987) Effects of methylphenidate and d-amphetamine on timing in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 27:513–515

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faure A, Haberland U, Conde F, Massioui NE (2005) Lesion to the nigrostriatal dopamine system disrupts stimulus–response habit formation. J Neurosci 25:2771–2780

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick DL, Allen JD (1996) Effects of selective dopamine D1- and D2-agonists and antagonists on timing performance in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 53:759–764

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbon J, Church RM, Meck WH (1984) Scalar timing in temporal memory. Ann N Y Acad Sci 423:52–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbon J, Malapani C, Dale C, Gallistel CR (1997) Toward a neurobiology of temporal cognition: advances and challenges. Curr Opin Neurobiol 7:170–179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gulley JM, Hoover BR, Larson GA, Zahniser NR (2003) Individual differences in cocaine-induced locomotor activity in rats: behavioral characteristics, cocaine pharmacokinetics and the dopamine transporter. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:2089–2101

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hinton SC, Meck WH (1996) Increasing the speed of an internal clock: the effects of nicotine on interval timing. Drug Dev Res 38:204–211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hinton SC, Meck WH (2004) Frontal–striatal circuitry activated by human peak-interval timing in the supra-seconds range. Cogn Brain Res 21:171–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horvitz JC (2002) Dopamine gating of glutamatergic sensorimotor and incentive motivational input signals to the striatum. Behav Brain Res 137:65–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jog MS, Kubota Y, Connolly CI, Hillegaart V, Graybiel AM (1999) Building neural representations of habits. Science 286:1745–1749

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalivas PW (2002) Neurocircuitry of addiction. In: Davis KL, Charney D, Coyle JT, Nemeroff C (eds) Neuropsychopharmacology: the fifth generation of progress. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, pp 1357–1366

  • Killeen PR, Fetterman JG (1988) A behavioral theory of timing. Psychol Rev 95:274–295

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton BJ, Mangels JA, Squire LR (1996) A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science 272:1399–1402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer PJ, Randall CK, Dose JM, Brown RW (1997) Impact of d-amphetamine on temporal estimation in pigeons tested with a production procedure. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58:323–327

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liao RM, Cheng RK (2005) Acute effects of d-amphetamine on the differential reinforcement of low-rate (DRL) schedule behavior in the rat: comparison with selective dopamine receptor antagonists. Chin J Physiol 48:41–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W (1992) Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioral reactions. J Neurophysiol 67:145–163

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig C, Meck WH (2001) Paying attention to time as one gets older. Psychol Sci 12:478–484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig C, Meck WH (2005) Chronic treatment with haloperidol induces working memory deficits in feedback effects of interval timing. Brain Cogn 58:9–16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig C, Matell MS, Meck WH (2005) Not “just” a coincidence: frontal–striatal synchronization in working memory and interval timing. Memory 13:441–448

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald CJ, Meck WH (2004) Systems-level integration of interval timing and reaction time. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 28:747–769

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald CJ, Meck WH (2005) Differential effects of clozapine and haloperidol on interval timing in the supraseconds range. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 182:232–244

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald CJ, Meck WH (2006) Interaction of raclopride and preparatory-interval effects on simple reaction-time performance. Behav Brain Res 175:62–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malapani C, Rakitin B, Meck WH, Deweer B, Dubois B, Gibbon J (1998) Coupled temporal memories in Parkinson’s disease: a dopamine-related dysfunction. J Cogn Neurosci 10:316–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maricq AV, Church RM (1983) The differential effects of haloperidol and methamphetamine on time estimation in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 79:10–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maricq AV, Roberts S, Church RM (1981) Methamphetamine and time estimation. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Proc 7:18–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matell MS, Meck WH (2000) Neuropsychological mechanisms of interval timing behaviour. Bioessays 22:94–103

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matell MS, Meck WH (2004) Cortico-striatal circuits and interval timing: coincidence-detection of oscillatory processes. Cogn Brain Res 21:139–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matell MS, Meck WH, Nicolelis MAL (2003) Interval timing and the encoding of signal duration by ensembles of cortical and striatal neurons. Behav Neurosci 117:760–773

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matell MS, King GR, Meck WH (2004) Differential modulation of clock speed in the tri-peak procedure by the chronic administration of intermittent versus continuous cocaine. Behav Neurosci 118:150–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matell MS, Bateson M, Meck WH (2006) Single-trials analyses demonstrate that increases in clock speed contribute to the methamphetamine-induced horizontal shifts in peak-interval timing functions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 188:201–212

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McAuley F, Leslie JC (1986) Molecular analyses of the effects of d-amphetamine on fixed-interval schedule performance of rats. J Exp Anal Behav 45:207–219

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McClure EA, Saulsgiver KA, Wynne CDL (2005) Effects of d-amphetamine on temporal discrimination in pigeons. Behav Pharm 16:193–208

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMillan DE, Healey ML (1976) Some effects of d-amphetamine and pentobarbital on performance under long fixed-interval schedule. J Exp Anal Behav 25:389–399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (1983) Selective adjustment of the speed of internal clock and memory processes. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Proc 9:171–201

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (1986) Affinity for the dopamine D2 receptor predicts neuroleptic potency in decreasing the speed of an internal clock. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 25:1185–1189

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (1996) Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception. Cogn Brain Res 3:227–242

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (2002) Choline uptake in the frontal cortex is proportional to the absolute error of a temporal memory translation constant in mature and aged rats. Learn Motiv 33:88–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (2005) Neuropsychology of timing and time perception. Brain Cogn 58:1–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (2006a) Frontal cortex lesions eliminate the clock speed effect of dopaminergic drugs on interval timing. Brain Res 1108:157–167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH (2006b) Neuroanatomical localization of an internal clock: a functional link between mesolimbic, nigrostriatal, and mesocortical dopaminergic systems. Brain Res 1109:93–107

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Benson AM (2002) Dissecting the brain’s internal clock: how frontal–striatal circuitry keeps time and shifts attention. Brain Cogn 48:195–211

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Church RM (1983) A mode control model of counting and timing processes. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Proc 9:320–334

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Church RM (1987a) Cholinergic modulation of the content of temporal memory. Behav Neurosci 101:457–464

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Church RM (1987b) Nutrients that modify the speed of internal clock and memory storage processes. Behav Neurosci 101:465–475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Williams CL (1997) Characterization of the facilitative effects of perinatal choline supplementation on timing and temporal memory. NeuroReport 8:2831–2835

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meck WH, Church RM, Wenk GL, Olton DS (1987) Nucleus basalis magnocellularis and medial septal area lesions differentially impair temporal memory. J Neurosci 7:3505–3511

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller JP, McAuley JD, Pang KCH (2006) Effect of the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 on short-interval timing in rats. Behav Neurosci 120:162–172

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, Daly D (1997) Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 17:2921–2927

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murer MG, Tseng KY, Kasanetz F, Belluscio M, Riquelme LA (2002) Brain oscillations, medium spiny neurons, and dopamine. Cell Mol Neurobiol 22:611–632

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson A, Killcross S (2006) Amphetamine exposure enhances habit formation. J Neurosci 26:3805–3812

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odum AL (2002) Behavioral pharmacology and timing. Behav Processes 57:107–120

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odum AL, Lieving LM, Schaal DW (2002) Effects of d-amphetamine in a temporal discrimination procedure: selective changes in timing or rate dependency? J Exp Anal Behav 78:195–214

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Onoda K, Takahashi E, Sakata S (2003) Event-related potentials in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum during a temporal discrimination task in rats. Cogn Brain Res 17:380–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacchioni AM, Cador M, Bregonzio C, Cancela LM (2007) A glutamate–dopamine interaction in the persistent enhanced response to amphetamine in nucleus accumbens core but not shell following a single restraint stress. Neuropsychopharmacology 32:682–692

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paule MG, Meck WH, McMillan DE, Bateson M, Popke EJ, Chelonis JJ, Hinton SC (1999) The use of timing behaviors in animals and humans to detect drug and/or toxicant effects. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21:491–502

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Penney TB, Holder MD, Meck WH (1996) Clonidine-induced antagonism of norepinephrine modulates the attentional processes involved in peak-interval timing. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 4:82–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds JNJ, Wickens JR (2002) Dopamine-dependent plasticity of corticostriatal synapses. Neural Netw 15:507–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds JNJ, Hyland, BI, Wickens JR (2001) A cellular mechanism of reward-related learning. Nature 413:67–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1999) Drug addiction: bad habits add up. Nature 398:567–570

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandstrom (2007) Estradiol modulation of the speed of an internal clock. Behav Neurosci (in press)

  • Santi A, Weise L, Kuiper D (1995) Amphetamine and memory for event duration in rats and pigeons: disruption of attention to temporal samples rather than changes in the speed of the internal clock. Psychobiology 23:224–232

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santi A, Coppa R, Ross L (2001) Effects of the dopamine D2 agonist, quinpirole, on time and number processing in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 68:147–155

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saulsgiver KA, McClure EA, Wynne CDL (2006) Effects of d-amphetamine on the behavior of pigeons exposed to the peak procedure. Behav Processes 71:268–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz W (1998) Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J Neurophysiol 80:1–27

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarcz R, Creese I, Coyle JT, Snyder SH (1978) Dopamine receptors localised on cerebral cortical afferents to rat corpus striatum. Nature 271:788–791

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segal DS, Kuczenski R (1987) Individual differences in responsiveness to single and repeated amphetamine administration: behavioral characteristics and neurochemical correlates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 242:917–926

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shoblock JR, Maisonneuve IM, Glick SD (2003a) Differences between d-methamphetamine and d-amphetamine in rats: working memory, tolerance, and extinction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 170:150–156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shoblock JR, Sullivan EB, Maisonneuve IM, Glick SD (2003b) Neurochemical and behavioral differences between d-methamphetamine and d-amphetamine in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 165:359–369

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stanford L, Santi A (1998) The dopamine D2 agonist, quinpirole, disrupts attention to temporal signals without selectively altering the speed of the internal clock. Psychobiology 26:258–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahata R, Moghaddam B (1998) Glutamatergic regulation of basal and stimulus-activated dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. J Neurochem 71:1443–1449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor KM, Horvitz JC, Balsam PD (2007) Amphetamine affects the start of responding in the peak interval timing task. Behav Processes 22:168–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verma A, Moghaddam B (1996) NMDA receptor antagonists impair prefrontal cortex function as assessed via spatial delayed alternation performance in rats: modulation by dopamine. J Neurosci 16:373–379

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress A-R, Jayne M, Ma Y, Wong C (2006) Cocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine addiction. J Neurosci 26:6583–6588

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace DG, Wallace PS, Field E, Whishaw IQ (2006) Pharmacological manipulations of food protection behavior in rats: evidence for dopaminergic contributions to time perception during a natural behavior. Brain Res 1112:213–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wan F-J, Swerdlow NR (1996) Sensorimotor gating in rats is regulated by different dopamine–glutamate interactions in the nucleus accumbens core and shell subregions. Brain Res 722:168–176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JQ, McGinty JF (1995) Differential effects of D1 and D2 receptor antagonists on acute amphetamine- or methamphetamine-induced up-regulation of zif/268 mRNA expression in rat forebrain. J Neurochem 65:2706–2715

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JQ, McGinty JF (1996) D1 and D2 receptor regulation of preproenkephalin and preprodynorphin mRNA in rat striatum following acute injection of amphetamine or methamphetamine. Synapse 22:114–122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JQ, McGinty JF (1999) Glutamate–dopamine interactions mediate the effects of psychostimulant drugs. Addict Biol 4:141–150

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JQ, Smith AJW, McGinty JF (1995) A single injection of amphetamine or methamphetamine induces dynamic alterations in c-fos, zif/268 and preprodynorphin messenger RNA expression in rat forebrain. Neuroscience 68:83–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ward RD, Odum AL (2006) Effects of prefeeding, intercomponent-interval food, and extinction on temporal discrimination and pacemaker rate. Behav Processes 71:297–306

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson CJ (1998) The basal ganglia. In: Shepherd GM (ed) The synaptic organization of the brain, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, London, pp 329–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson CJ (2000) Striatal circuitry: categorically selective, or selectively categorical? In: Miller R, Wickens J (eds) Brain dynamics and the striatal complex. Harwood Academic, Australia, pp 289–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Yin HH, Knowlton BJ (2006) The role of the basal ganglia in habit formation. Nat Rev Neurosci 7:464–476

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yin HH, Knowlton BJ, Balleine BW (2004) Lesions of dorsolateral striatum preserve outcome expectancy but disrupt habit formation in instrumental learning. Eur J Neurosci 19:181–189

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research was supported, in part, by fellowships from the James McKeen Cattell Fund and the CNRS, France.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, 572 Research Drive, Genome Sciences Research Building II, Box 91050, Durham, NC, 27708, USA

    Ruey-Kuang Cheng, Oshri L. Hakak & Warren H. Meck

Authors
  1. Ruey-Kuang Cheng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Oshri L. Hakak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Warren H. Meck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Warren H. Meck.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cheng, RK., Hakak, O.L. & Meck, W.H. Habit formation and the loss of control of an internal clock: inverse relationship between the level of baseline training and the clock-speed enhancing effects of methamphetamine. Psychopharmacology 193, 351–362 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0783-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0783-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation