Abstract
Radiometry, i.e. measuring the power of electromagnetic radiation—hitherto often referred to as “photometry”—is of fundamental importance in astronomy. We provide an overview of how to achieve a valid laboratory calibration of space telescopes and discuss ways to reliably extend this calibration to the spectroscopic telescope’s performance in space. A lot of effort has been, and still is going into radiometric “calibration” of telescopes once they are in space; these methods use celestial primary and transfer standards and are based in part on stellar models. The history of the calibration of the Hubble Space Telescope serves as a platform to review these methods. However, we insist that a true calibration of spectroscopic space telescopes must directly be based on and traceable to laboratory standards, and thus be independent of the observations. This has recently become a well-supported aim, following the discovery of the acceleration of the cosmic expansion by use of type-Ia supernovae, and has led to plans for launching calibration rockets for the visible and infrared spectral range. This is timely, too, because an adequate exploitation of data from present space missions, such as Gaia, and from many current astronomical projects like Euclid and WFIRST demands higher radiometric accuracy than is generally available today. A survey of the calibration of instruments observing from the X-ray to the infrared spectral domains that include instrument- or mission-specific estimates of radiometric accuracies rounds off this review.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In astronomy, the term photometry is often used when dealing with broadband light-level measurements; those with higher spectral resolution are called spectrophotometry. However, in general terminology of radiation measurements, photometry refers to intensity determinations that are relevant to human vision. Therefore, we have chosen to use the terms radiometry or spectroradiometry, which apply to measurements in the entire electromagnetic spectrum, in this paper. To avoid confusion, we use the term “(astronomical) photometry” when discussing results of the photometry method of astronomy.
If an object is not spatially resolved, irradiance, I, the detected power per unit area (with unit symbol W m\(^{-2}\); often, loosely, called radiative flux) is measured. Spectral irradiance refers to the irradiance per energy (or wavelength) interval at a given energy (or wavelength). Radiance, R, is the power per unit area per unit solid angle, with unit symbol W m\(^{-2}\) sr\(^{-1}\) [cf., The International System of Units (SI), Brochure, 8th edition (2006, updated in 2014), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure]. Spectral radiance refers to the radiance per energy (or wavelength) interval at a given energy (or wavelength), with unit symbol W \(\hbox {m}^{-2}\hbox { sr}^{-1}\hbox { eV}^{-1}\) (or W \(\hbox {m}^{-2} \hbox { sr}^{-1}\hbox { nm}^{-1}\)). If the distance, d, to a uniformly emitting object of area, S, is known, then the irradiance is related to the radiance by \(I = R (S/d^{2})\).
The effective area of a spectroradiometric instrument is the collecting area of an instrument with loss-free optical elements, i.e. with perfect reflections, diffraction or dispersion efficiency as well as detector efficiency.
These should not be confused with the primary laboratory standards described in Sect. 2.1.
Gaia was launched on 19 December 2013 and began its 5-year science phase on 29 July 2014. For its progress follow http://sci.esa.int/gaia.
In spite of grazing-incidence optics being much less sensitive to contamination and, therefore, having a better radiometric stability, normal-incidence instrumentation is usually preferred—at least as long as surfaces with sufficient reflectivity are available, because the optical design of normal-incidence optics is considerably less difficult.
By adding airglow and auroral-emission monitoring, the impact of space weather on the terrestrial thermosphere/ionosphere can be studied as well, and used to investigate real-time space weather effects. This in turn helps to derive detailed correction procedures for the evaluation of global navigation satellite system signals.
Unless otherwise indicated, all uncertainties in this paper are given in terms of one standard deviation, i.e. 68 % confidence limit (coverage factor \(k=1\)).
The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM, http://www.bipm.fr) has the mandate to provide the basis for a single, coherent system of measurements—traceable to the International System of Units (SI)—throughout the world. The Bureau was set up by the Convention of the Metre and operates under the exclusive supervision of the Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM). The Committee’s principal task is to ensure worldwide uniformity in units of measurement, particularly between national measurement standards, but the CIPM also takes on the more fundamental task to arrange for and monitor comparisons that determine the accuracies with which the individual primary standards are realised.
The US National Institute of Science and Technology (earlier National Bureau of Standards, NBS).
An additional concept, viz., having emission transfer standards on the International Space Station (ISS), or on a small calibration satellite orbiting the Earth, with the purpose of calibrating co-orbiting satellites in the extreme-ultraviolet range has been suggested (Smith et al. 1991).
In contrast to the cryogenic electrical substitution radiometers, where corrections covering non-ideal performance nearly vanish owing to the low operating temperature, ESRs used at higher temperatures require a careful evaluation of outside influences, such as heating of baffles. Besides, for ESRs to be used in space, such tests are complex.
Spectroradiometric calibrations—at the time called determining the “spectral energy distribution” (SED) of stars—had been performed starting in the 1910s with visual and photographic comparisons with assumed stellar models. Direct comparisons with calibrated standard lamps started at the end of the 1930s at Ann Arbor and continued in the 1940s with extensions to the infrared, and by going to higher altitude, for example at Jungfraujoch, into the ultraviolet as well. The results were usually expressed as colour temperatures and in magnitudes (see, for example, Code 1960).
The Oxford group had been working on precision laboratory astrophysics early on. In the 1970s, they experimentally determined transition probabilities with one-percent accuracies, when such measurements normally had uncertainties of \(\pm 10~\%\) or more. Not surprisingly then, Blackwell chose the topic of “Uncertainty in Astronomy” for his Presidential Address to the Royal Astronomical Society (Blackwell 1975).
In reviewing the literature relating to a potential variability of Vega, Bohlin (2014) came to the conclusion that there was not enough support for this claim. Nevertheless, Butkovskaya et al. (2011) and Butkovskaya (2014) did not exclude a long-term variability of Vega. The conclusion was that a (very minor) 21-year variability is “most probable”. Böhm et al. (2015) have recently observed starspots on Vega.
“Spectroradiometrically” in our terminology.
As pointed out before, Vega has now been replaced by the primary standard stars 109 Vir in the visible and by Sirius (\(\alpha \) CMa) in the infrared, cf., Engelke et al. (2010).
Cf., http://hubblesite.org/the_telescope/team_hubble/servicing_missions.php#sm4, as well as the caption of Fig. 9. Note, however, that HST was not the first scientific satellite to be repaired in orbit. At launch in 1973, the Skylab space station had lost a so-called micrometeorid shield during launch. This shield would also have been a thermal shield of the astronauts’ living space. Upon their arrival at Skylab, the first crew was able to mount and deploy a heat shade, which saved the mission. In 1984, the Solar Maximum Mission also underwent repair in orbit, when it was visited by the space shuttle Challenger. Another example of a data gap stems from the SOHO mission, which experienced an intermediate time-out as well. Contact with the spacecraft was lost in August 1998 after a sequence of incorrect commands during what should have been a routine manoeuvre. Four weeks later, a powerful radar signal from Earth produced a faint echo from the spacecraft indicating that SOHO had not drifted away from its position in its L1-halo orbit after loss of contact. It was slowly rotating and angled in such a way that sunlight was going to fall on its solar cells during the following months. Normal operations could then be resumed after an extended turn-on and test period. The responsivity of many instruments had changed—out-baking in the absence of thermal control had, in fact, improved the responsivity of some instruments (cf., Pauluhn et al. 2002). In this context, we recall the earlier mentioned reference about the outgassing of a spacecraft after launch (Schläppi et al. 2010).
The US National Bureau of Standards, now called National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
The idea that “if we accept that theoretical predictions should be correct ...” was later followed, and has been guiding the calibration of IUE and HST up to today. Improvements of the models (improved gravity values, non-LTE calculations, for example) which have taken place in the mean time will be mentioned below.
This recommendation, with an extension into the infrared, was made in view of the STIS, which covered the wavelength range 115 nm to \(1\,\upmu \hbox {m}\) and was eventually installed on board HST during SM 2 in 1997. The data for the longer wavelengths were based on observations by Oke (1990) with the 5.1 m Hale telescope on Palomar Mountain that were later slightly corrected by use of HST FOS observations (Colina and Bohlin 1994).
Note that the Astrophysics Data System ADS gives access to all papers in a series, whenever one calls up one of the individual papers.
Updated general information on IACHEC is available on the web site http://web.mit.edu/iachec/. Results of the IACHEC collaboration are published as refereed papers and made accessible through http://web.mit.edu/iachec/papers/.
Additionally, it carried a Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor (GRBM) of four CsI(Na) scintillators that were also used as active lateral shields of the PDS experiment. Its calibration is described by Amati et al. (1997).
Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometers, 1993 and 1996 on the Astro-SPAS, a reusable shuttle-launched space platform (Grewing et al. 1998).
IUE data are available from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), http://archive.stsci.edu/iue.
The two web sites http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/main/index.html and http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/general/instruments/ give an in-depth overview of HST, its history and its instruments.
Chopping and nodding in perpendicular direction, used to reduce background signal in particular for point-source photometry.
These bands are centred around the wavelengths \(56\,\upmu \hbox {m}, 100\,\upmu \hbox {m}\) and \(160\,\upmu \hbox {m}\), respectively. An in-depth description of the filter bandpasses and how they have to be used in comparison with other instruments can be found on the PACS calibration web sites http://herschel.esac.esa.int/twiki/bin/view/Public/PacsCalibrationWeb.
Preliminary results had indicated some discrepancy to WMAP, which could be eliminated by improved data analysis; for updated information, see the webpages of the Planck Collaboration http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/planck/publications.
The corresponding references are accessible through the webpage http://www.pmodwrc.ch/pmod.php?topic=tsi/composite/SolarConstant.
Taken during the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS) Space Shuttle missions ATLAS 1, March 1992, and ATLAS 3, November 1994.
Note, however, that apertures and stops in the instrument itself were not taken into account in this way.
UVCS is a coronagraph with external and internal occulters. Adjustment of the latter, which is done to reduce the level of scattered light, changes the aperture.
The Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center recently changed its name to Space Technology Advanced Research and Development Laboratories, or STAR Labs.
See also http://secchi.lmsal.com/EUVI/.
The MEGS-A had to be turned off due to a failure of its CCD electronics in May 2014.
Abbreviations
- AKARI :
-
Japanese space mission for infrared astronomy, formerly Astro-F
- ANS :
-
Astronomical Netherlands Satellite
- AXAF :
-
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, now Chandra
- BeppoSAX :
-
Italian–Dutch satellite for X-ray astronomy
- Chandra :
-
X-ray observatory, formerly AXAF
- COBE :
-
Cosmic Background Explorer
- CXO :
-
Chandra X-ray observatory
- Euclid :
-
Future ESA mission to map the geometry of the dark Universe
- EUVE :
-
Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer
- EXOSAT :
-
European X-ray Observatory Satellite
- FUSE :
-
Far-Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer
- Gaia :
-
ESA astrometry mission
- GALEX :
-
Galaxy Evolution Explorer
- Herschel :
-
ESA infrared and sub-millimetre telescope mission
- Hinode :
-
Solar observatory, formerly Solar-B
- HST :
-
Hubble Space Telescope
- IRAS :
-
Infrared Astronomy Satellite
- IRIS :
-
Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph
- IRTS :
-
Infrared Telescope in Space
- ISO :
-
Infrared Space Observatory
- ISS :
-
International Space Station
- IUE :
-
International Ultraviolet Explorer
- JWST :
-
James Webb Space Telescope
- MSX :
-
Midcourse Space Experiment
- NuSTAR :
-
Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array
- OAO :
-
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory
- ORFEUS :
-
Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer
- OSO :
-
Orbiting Solar Observatory
- Planck :
-
ESA mission for microwave astronomy
- RHESSI :
-
Reuven Ramaty High-Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager
- ROSAT :
-
Röntgensatellit
- Rosetta :
-
ESA mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko
- RXTE :
-
Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer
- SDO :
-
Solar Dynamics Observatory
- Skylab :
-
NASA space station
- SMEX :
-
Small Explorer Mission
- SMM :
-
Solar Maximum Mission
- SNOE :
-
Student Nitric Oxide Explorer
- SOHO :
-
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
- SORCE :
-
Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment
- Spacelab :
-
Laboratory for use on Space Shuttle flights
- SPARTAN :
-
Shuttle-launched satellites for solar studies
- Spitzer :
-
Space Infrared Telescope Facility
- STEREO :
-
Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory
- STS :
-
Space Transportation System
- Suzaku :
-
Japanese X-ray astronomy mission, formerly Astro-E2
- Swift :
-
NASA Gamma-Ray Burst Mission
- TD-1 :
-
ESA UV mission
- TIMED :
-
Thermosphere, Ionosphere and Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics mission
- TRACE :
-
Transition Region and Coronal Explorer
- UARS :
-
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
- Voyager :
-
NASA planetary and interstellar mission (two spacecraft, Voyager-1 and Voyager-2)
- WFIRST :
-
Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope
- WMAP :
-
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
- XMM-Newton :
-
X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission
- Yohkoh :
-
Solar X-ray observatory
- 2MASS:
-
Two Micron All Sky Survey
- ACCESS:
-
Absolute Color Calibration Experiment for Standard Stars
- ACIS:
-
Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer
- ACRIM:
-
Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor
- ACS:
-
Advanced Camera for Surveys
- ADS:
-
Astrophysics Data System
- AIA:
-
Atmospheric Imaging Assembly
- ALS:
-
Advanced Light Source
- APS:
-
Active pixel sensor
- ASM:
-
All-Sky Monitor
- ATLAS:
-
Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science, on the Space Shuttle
- ATM:
-
Apollo Telescope Mount
- BCS:
-
Bragg Crystal Spectrometer and bent crystal spectrometer
- BESSY:
-
Berlin Electron Storage ring for Synchrotron radiation
- BIPM:
-
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
- CALSPEC:
-
Calibration data base for the HST and the JWST, maintained by the STScI
- CCD:
-
Charge-coupled device
- CDS:
-
Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer
- CHIANTI:
-
An atomic database for spectroscopic diagnostics of astrophysical plasmas
- CIPM:
-
Comité International des Poids et Mesures
- CMB:
-
Cosmic Microwave Background
- CME:
-
Coronal mass ejection
- CNES:
-
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
- COS:
-
Cosmic Origins Spectrograph
- CSL:
-
Centre Spatial de Liège
- CTE:
-
Charge transfer efficiency
- DIARAD:
-
Differential Absolute Radiometer
- ECR:
-
Electrically calibrated radiometer
- EGS:
-
Extreme-ultraviolet Grating Spectrograph
- EIS:
-
EUV Imaging Spectrometer
- EIT:
-
Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Telescope
- EPIC:
-
European Photon Imaging Camera
- ESA:
-
European Space Agency
- ESP:
-
EUV spectro-photometer
- ESR:
-
Electrical substitution radiometer
- EUNIS:
-
Extreme-Ultraviolet Normal Incidence Spectrograph
- EUV:
-
Extreme ultraviolet
- EUVI:
-
EUV Imager
- EVE:
-
Extreme ultraviolet Variability Experiment
- FIR:
-
Far infrared
- FIRAS:
-
Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer
- FIS:
-
Far Infrared Surveyor
- FOC:
-
Faint Object Camera
- FOS:
-
Faint Object Spectrograph
- FOV:
-
Field of view
- FTS:
-
Fourier transform spectrometer
- FUV:
-
Far ultraviolet
- FWHM:
-
Full width at half maximum
- GEANT:
-
Geometry and Tracking, a high-energy photon and particle transport code
- GI:
-
Grazing incidence
- GIS:
-
Grazing incidence spectrometer
- GRBM:
-
Gamma-ray Burst Monitor
- GSFC:
-
Goddard Space Flight Center
- HEASARC:
-
High-Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center
- HETG:
-
High-Energy Transmission Grating
- HEXTE:
-
High-Energy X-ray Timing Experiment
- HF:
-
Hickey–Frieden radiometer on NIMBUS-7
- HFI:
-
High-Frequency Instrument
- HI:
-
Heliospheric Imager
- HIFI:
-
Heterodyne Instrument for the Far Infrared
- HMI:
-
Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager for SDO
- HPGSPC:
-
High-Pressure Gas Scintillator Proportional Counter
- HRC:
-
High-Resolution Camera
- HRI:
-
High-Resolution Imager
- HRMA:
-
High-Resolution Mirror Assembly
- HRTS:
-
High-Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph
- HUT:
-
Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope
- HXD:
-
Hard X-ray Detector
- HXT:
-
Hard X-ray Telescope
- IACHEC:
-
International Astronomical Consortium for High-Energy Calibration
- IAS:
-
Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale
- IAU:
-
International Astronomical Union
- IR:
-
Infrared
- IRC:
-
InfraRed Camera
- ISAS:
-
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan
- ISSI:
-
International Space Science Institute
- JAXA:
-
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
- KAO:
-
Kuiper Airborne Observatory
- \(\mathrm {\Lambda }\)AMBDA:
-
Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis
- LASCO:
-
Large Angle Spectroscopic Coronagraph
- LASP:
-
Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics
- LECS:
-
Low-Energy Concentrator Spectrometer
- LETG:
-
Low-Energy Transmission Grating
- LFI:
-
Low-Frequency Instrument
- LMSAL:
-
Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory
- LTE:
-
Local thermodynamic equilibrium
- MAST:
-
Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes
- MCP:
-
Microchannel plate
- MECS:
-
Medium Energy Concentrator Spectrometer
- MEGS:
-
Multiple EUV Grating Spectrograph
- MIR:
-
Mid infrared
- MIT:
-
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- MLS:
-
Metrology Light Source
- MOS:
-
Metal oxide semiconductor
- MPE:
-
Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik
- MPG:
-
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- MPS:
-
Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, formerly Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie (MPAE)
- MSFC:
-
Marshall Space Flight Center
- MUV:
-
Medium ultraviolet
- NASA:
-
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (US)
- NBS:
-
National Bureau of Standards, now NIST
- NI:
-
Normal incidence
- NIR:
-
Near infrared
- NIRSpec:
-
Near infrared multiobject dispersive spectrograph to be flown on the JWST
- NIS:
-
Normal incidence spectrometer
- NISP:
-
Near-infrared Spectrograph and Photometer on Euclid
- NIST:
-
National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
- NLTE:
-
Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium
- NRL:
-
Naval Research Laboratory
- NUV:
-
Near ultraviolet
- PACS:
-
Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer for Herschel
- PANTER:
-
X-ray test facility near München, Germany
- PCA:
-
Proportional Counter Array
- PDS:
-
Phoswich Detection System
- PMOD/WRC:
-
Physikalisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos / World Radiation Center
- PSF:
-
Point spread function
- PSI:
-
Paul Scherrer Institut
- PSPC:
-
Position Sensitive Proportional Counters
- PTB:
-
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
- QCM:
-
Quartz-crystal micro balance
- QE:
-
Quantum efficiency
- RAL:
-
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
- RaMCaF:
-
Rainwater Memorial Calibration Facility
- RCSS:
-
Radiometric calibration spectral source
- RMC:
-
Rotation Modulation Collimator
- SAA:
-
South Atlantic Anomaly
- SAO:
-
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
- SARR:
-
Space absolute radiometric reference scale
- SDD:
-
Silicon drift detector
- SECCHI:
-
Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation
- SED:
-
Spectral energy distribution
- SEE:
-
Solar EUV Experiment
- SEM:
-
Solar Extreme-ultraviolet Monitor
- SERTS:
-
Solar Extreme-ultraviolet Research Telescope and Spectrograph
- SI:
-
Système International d’Unités, International System of Units
- SIM:
-
Spectral Irradiance Monitor
- SIRS:
-
Solar irradiance reference spectra
- SM1(2,3,4):
-
HST Servicing Missions
- SN:
-
Supernova
- SolACES:
-
Solar Auto-Calibrating EUV/UV Spectrophotometer
- SOLSTICE:
-
Solar-Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment
- SOT:
-
Solar Optical Telescope
- SPIRE:
-
Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver
- SSI:
-
Solar spectral irradiance
- STIS:
-
Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph
- STScI:
-
Space Telescope Science Institute
- SUMER:
-
Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation
- SURF:
-
Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility
- SUSIM:
-
Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor
- SXT:
-
Soft X-ray Telescope
- TCF:
-
Telescope Calibration Facility (NIST)
- TIM:
-
Total Irradiance Monitor
- TSI:
-
Total solar irradiance
- UKSA:
-
United Kingdom Space Agency
- UV:
-
Ultraviolet
- UVCS:
-
Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer
- VIRGO:
-
Variability of Solar Irradiance and Gravity Oscillations
- VUV:
-
Vacuum ultraviolet
- WBS:
-
Wide Band Spectrometer
- WD:
-
White Dwarf
- WFC:
-
Wide Field Camera
- XACT:
-
X-ray Astronomy Calibration and Testing, Palermo, Italy
- XIS:
-
X-ray Imaging Spectrometer
- XPS:
-
XUV Photometer System
- XRCF:
-
X-ray and Cryogenics Facility, NASA MSFC
- XRS:
-
X-ray Spectrometer
- XRT:
-
X-ray Telescope
- XUV:
-
Extreme ultraviolet
References
Aalders JWG, van Duinen RJ, Luinge W, Wildeman KJ (1975) Calibration of the UV experiment in ANS. Space Sci Instrum 1:343–350
Amati L, Cinti MN, Feroci M, Costa E, Frontera F, dal Fiume D, Collina P, Nicastro L, Orlandini M, Palazzi E, Rapisarda M, Zavattini G (1997) BeppoSAX GRBM on-ground calibration data analysis. In: Siegmund OH, Gummin MA (eds) EUV, X-ray, and gamma-ray instrumentation for astronomy viii, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3114 pp 176–185
Amendola L, Appleby S, Bacon D, Baker T, Baldi M, Bartolo N, Blanchard A, Bonvin C, Borgani S, Branchini E, Burrage C, Camera S, Carbone C, Casarini L, Cropper M, de Rham C, Di Porto C, Ealet A, Ferreira PG, Finelli F, García-Bellido J, Giannantonio T, Guzzo L, Heavens A, Heisenberg L, Heymans C, Hoekstra H, Hollenstein L, Holmes R, Horst O, Jahnke K, Kitching TD, Koivisto T, Kunz M, La Vacca G, March M, Majerotto E, Markovic K, Marsh D, Marulli F, Massey R, Mellier Y, Mota DF, Nunes N, Percival W, Pettorino V, Porciani C, Quercellini C, Read J, Rinaldi M, Sapone D, Scaramella R, Skordis C, Simpson F, Taylor A, Thomas S, Trotta R, Verde L, Vernizzi F, Vollmer A, Wang Y, Weller J, Zlosnik T (2013) Cosmology and fundamental physics with the Euclid satellite. Living Rev Relativ 16:6. doi:10.12942/lrr-2013-6
Arimatsu K, Doi Y, Wada T, Takita S, Kawada M, Matsuura S, Ootsubo T, Kataza H (2014) Point source calibration of the AKARI/FIS all-sky survey maps for stacking analysis. PASJ 66:47. doi:10.1093/pasj/psu010
Arnold D, Ulm G (1994) Determination of photon emission probabilities of radionuclides using a Si(Li) detector calibrated by the primary standard source, BESSY. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res A 339:43–48. doi:10.1016/0168-9002(94)91776-0
Arp U, Clark CW, Farrell AP, Fein E, Furst ML, Hagley EW (2002) Synchrotron ultraviolet radiation facility SURF III. Rev Sci Instrum 73:1674–1676. doi:10.1063/1.1445833
Arvesen JC, Griffin RN Jr, Pearson BD Jr (1969) Determination of extraterrestrial solar spectral irradiance from a research aircraft. Appl Opt 8:2215–2232. doi:10.1364/AO.8.002215
Aschenbach B, Bräuninger H, Briel U, Brinkmann W, Fink H, Heinecke N, Hippmann H, Kettenring G, Metzner G, Ondrusch A (1981) The ROSAT mission. Space Sci Rev 30:569–573. doi:10.1007/BF01246075
Aumann HH, Beichman CA, Gillett FC, de Jong T, Houck JR, Low FJ, Neugebauer G, Walker RG, Wesselius PR (1984) Discovery of a shell around Alpha Lyrae. ApJ 278:L23–L27. doi:10.1086/184214
Bailey SM, Woods TN, Barth CA, Solomon SC (1999) Measurements of the solar soft X-ray irradiance from the Student Nitric Oxide Explorer. Geophys Res Lett 26:1255–1258. doi:10.1029/1999GL900236
Ballester P, Rosa MR (1997) Modeling echelle spectrographs. A&AS 126:563–571. doi:10.1051/aas:1997283
Balog Z, Müller T, Nielbock M, Altieri B, Klaas U, Blommaert J, Linz H, Lutz D, Moór A, Billot N, Sauvage M, Okumura K (2014) The Herschel-PACS photometer calibration. Point-source flux calibration for scan maps. Exp Astron 37:129–160. doi:10.1007/s10686-013-9352-3
Barnstedt J, Kappelmann N, Appenzeller I, Fromm A, Gölz M, Grewing M, Gringel W, Haas C, Hopfensitz W, Krämer G, Krautter J, Lindenberger A, Mandel H, Widmann H (1999) The ORFEUS II Echelle Spectrometer: instrument description, performance and data reduction. A&AS 134:561–567. doi:10.1051/aas:1999156
Bautz MW, Pivovaroff MJ, Kissel SE, Prigozhin GY, Isobe T, Jones SE, Ricker GR, Thornagel R, Kraft S, Scholze F, Ulm G (2000) Absolute calibration of ACIS X-ray CCDs using calculable undispersed synchrotron radiation. In: Truemper JE, Aschenbach B (eds) X-ray optics, instruments, and missions iii, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4012 pp 53–67
BenMoussa A, Gissot S, Schühle U, Del Zanna G, Auchère F, Mekaoui S, Jones AR, Walton D, Eyles CJ, Thuillier G, Seaton D, Dammasch IE, Cessateur G, Meftah M, Andretta V, Berghmans D, Bewsher D, Bolsée D, Bradley L, Brown DS, Chamberlin PC, Dewitte S, Didkovsky LV, Dominique M, Eparvier FG, Foujols T, Gillotay D, Giordanengo B, Halain JP, Hock RA, Irbah A, Jeppesen C, Judge DL, Kretzschmar M, McMullin DR, Nicula B, Schmutz W, Ucker G, Wieman S, Woodraska D, Woods TN (2013) On-orbit degradation of solar instruments. Sol Phys 288:389–434. doi:10.1007/s11207-013-0290-z
BenMoussa A, Giordanengo B, Gissot S, Dammasch IE, Dominique M, Hochedez JF, Soltani A, Bourzgui N, Saito T, Schühle U, Gottwald A, Kroth U, Jones AR (2015) Degradation assessment of LYRA after 5 years on orbit—technology demonstration. Exp Astron 39:29–43. doi:10.1007/s10686-014-9437-7
Bewsher D, Brown DS, Eyles CJ, Kellett BJ, White GJ, Swinyard B (2010) Determination of the photometric calibration and large-scale flatfield of the STEREO heliospheric imagers: I. HI-1. Sol Phys 264:433–460. doi:10.1007/s11207-010-9582-8
Bewsher D, Brown DS, Eyles CJ (2012) Long-term evolution of the photometric calibration of the STEREO heliospheric imagers: I. HI-1. Sol Phys 276:491–499. doi:10.1007/s11207-011-9874-7
Blackwell DE (1975) The presidential address: uncertainty in astronomy. QJRAS 16:361–377
Blackwell DE, Leggett SK, Petford AD, Mountain CM, Selby MJ (1983) Absolute calibration of the infrared flux from VEGA at 1.24, 2.20, 3.76 and 4.6 microns by comparison with a standard furnace. MNRAS 205:897–905
Blades JC, Osmer SJ (1994) Calibrating Hubble Space Telescope, proceedings of a workshop. Bull Am Astron Soc 26:1212
Bless RC, Code AD, Fairchild ET (1976) Ultraviolet photometry from the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory. XXI—absolute energy distribution of stars in the ultraviolet. ApJ 203:410–416. doi:10.1086/154092
Boella G, Chiappetti L, Conti G, Cusumano G, del Sordo S, La Rosa G, Maccarone MC, Mineo T, Molendi S, Re S, Sacco B, Tripiciano M (1997) The medium-energy concentrator spectrometer on board the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 122:327–340. doi:10.1051/aas:1997138
Boerner P, Edwards C, Lemen J, Rausch A, Schrijver C, Shine R, Shing L, Stern R, Tarbell T, Title A, Wolfson CJ, Soufli R, Spiller E, Gullikson E, McKenzie D, Windt D, Golub L, Podgorski W, Testa P, Weber M (2012) Initial calibration of the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Sol Phys 275:41–66. doi:10.1007/s11207-011-9804-8
Boerner PF, Testa P, Warren H, Weber MA, Schrijver CJ (2014) Photometric and thermal cross-calibration of solar EUV instruments. Sol Phys 289:2377–2397. doi:10.1007/s11207-013-0452-z
Boggess A, Carr FA, Evans DC, Fischel D, Freeman HR, Fuechsel CF, Klinglesmith DA, Krueger VL, Longanecker GW, Moore JV (1978) The IUE spacecraft and instrumentation. Nature 275:372–377. doi:10.1038/275372a0
Bohlin JD, Frost KJ, Burr PT, Guha AK, Withbroe GL (1980) Solar maximum mission. Sol Phys 65:5–14. doi:10.1007/BF00151380
Bohlin RC (2007) HST stellar standards with 1 % accuracy in absolute flux. In: Sterken C (ed) The future of photometric, spectrophotometric and polarimetric standardization, astronomical society of the pacific conference series, vol 364, p 315
Bohlin RC (2014) Hubble Space Telescope CALSPEC flux standards: Sirius (and Vega). AJ 147:127. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/147/6/127
Bohlin RC, Frimout D, Lillie CF (1974) Absolute fix measurements in the rocket ultraviolet. A&A 30:127–134
Bohlin RC, Harris AW, Holm AV, Gry C (1990) The ultraviolet calibration of the Hubble Space Telescope. IV—absolute IUE fluxes of Hubble Space Telescope standard stars. ApJS 73:413–439. doi:10.1086/191474
Bohlin RC, Colina L, Finley DS (1995) White dwarf standard stars: G191-B2B, GD 71, GD 153, HZ 43. AJ 110:1316–1325. doi:10.1086/117606
Bohlin RC, Gordon KD, Tremblay PE (2014) Techniques and review of absolute flux calibration from the ultraviolet to the mid-infrared. PASP 126:711–732. doi:10.1086/677655
Böhm T, Holschneider M, Lignières F, Petit P, Rainer M, Paletou F, Wade G, Alecian E, Carfantan H, Blazère A, Mirouh GM (2015) Discovery of starspots on Vega. First spectroscopic detection of surface structures on a normal A-type star. A&A 577:A64. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425425
Booth AJ, Selby MJ, Blackwell DE, Petford AD, Arribas S (1989) Determination of the absolute flux from VEGA at 2.250 microns. A&A 218:167–168
Bottema M (1993) Reflective correctors for the Hubble Space Telescope axial instruments. Appl Opt 32:1768–1774. doi:10.1364/AO.32.001768
Bowen PJ, Bowles JA, Glencross WM, Speer RJ, Timothy AF, Timothy JG, Willmore AP (1971) A grazing incidence monochromator for satellite studies of the solar He II Lyman-alpha line at 303.8 Å. Appl Opt 10:28–33. doi:10.1364/AO.10.000028
Bowyer S, Malina RF (1991) The extreme ultraviolet explorer mission. Adv Space Res 11:205–215. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(91)90077-W
Bradt HV, Rothschild RE, Swank JH (1993) X-ray timing explorer mission. A&AS 97:355–360
Brejnholt NF, Christensen FE, Jakobsen AC, Hailey CJ, Koglin JE, Blaedel KL, Stern M, Thornhill D, Sleator C, Zhang S, Craig WW, Madsen KK, Decker T, Pivovaroff MJ, Vogel JK (2011) NuSTAR ground calibration: the Rainwater Memorial Calibration Facility (RaMCaF). In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 8147. doi:10.1117/12.894659
Brejnholt NF, Christensen FE, Westergaard NJ, Hailey CJ, Koglin JE, Craig WW (2012) NuSTAR on-ground calibration: II. Effective area. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 8443, p 1. doi:10.1117/12.925631
Brekke P, Thompson WT, Woods TN, Eparvier FG (2000) The extreme-ultraviolet solar irradiance spectrum observed with the coronal diagnostic spectrometer (CDS) on SOHO. ApJ 536:959–970. doi:10.1086/308966
Bridges JM, Ott WR (1977) Vacuum ultraviolet radiometry. III—the argon mini-arc as a new secondary standard of spectral radiance. Appl Opt 16:367–376. doi:10.1364/AO.16.000367
Briel UG, B A, Hasinger G, Hippmann H, Pfeffermann E, Predehl P, Schmitt JHMM, Schwentker O, Voges W, Zimmermann U, George IM, Snowden SL, Turner TJ, David FRJ L Harnden, Kearns KE, Zombeck MV, Barstow MA, Osborne JP, Pye JP, Watson M, West RG, Willingale R (1997) ROSAT user’s handbook. Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik, Garching, D, 1st edn. http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/ruh/handbook/handbook.html
Broadfoot AL, Sandel BR, Shemansky DE, Atreya SK, Donahue TM, Moos HW, Bertaux JL, Blamont JE, Ajello JM, Strobel DF (1977) Ultraviolet spectrometer experiment for the Voyager mission. Space Sci Rev 21:183–205. doi:10.1007/BF00200850
Brown CM, Feldman U, Seely JF, Korendyke CM, Hara H (2008) Wavelengths and intensities of spectral lines in the 171–211 and 245–291 Å ranges from five solar regions recorded by the extreme-ultraviolet imaging spectrometer (EIS) on Hinode. ApJS 176:511–535. doi:10.1086/529378
Brown DS, Bewsher D, Eyles CJ (2009) Calibrating the pointing and optical parameters of the STEREO heliospheric imagers. Sol Phys 254:185–225. doi:10.1007/s11207-008-9277-6
Brueckner GE, Edlow KL, Floyd LEIV, Lean JL, VanHoosier ME (1993) The solar ultraviolet spectral irradiance monitor (SUSIM) experiment on board the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS). J Geophys Res 98:10,695–10,711. doi:10.1029/93JD00410
Brueckner GE, Howard RA, Koomen MJ, Korendyke CM, Michels DJ, Moses JD, Socker DG, Dere KP, Lamy PL, Llebaria A, Bout MV, Schwenn R, Simnett GM, Bedford DK, Eyles CJ (1995) The large angle spectroscopic coronagraph (LASCO). Sol Phys 162:357–402. doi:10.1007/BF00733434
Burlov-Vasiljev KA, Gurtovenko EA, Matvejev YB (1995) New absolute measurements of the solar spectrum. Sol Phys 157:51–73. doi:10.1007/BF00680609
Butkovskaya V, Plachinda S, Valyavin G, Baklanova D, Lee BC (2011) The long-term variability of Vega. Astron Nachr 332:956–960. doi:10.1002/asna.201111587
Butkovskaya VV (2014) On the variability of Vega. Bull Crime Astrophys Obs 110:80–84. doi:10.3103/S0190271714010100
Canfield LR, Vest RE, Korde R, Schmidtke H, Desor R (1998) Absolute silicon photodiodes for 160 nm to 254 nm photons. Metrologia 35:329. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/35/4/19
Carlson RW, Ogawa HS, Phillips E, Judge DL (1984) Absolute measurement of the extreme uv solar flux. Appl Opt 23(14):2327–2332. doi:10.1364/AO.23.002327. http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-23-14-2327
Chipman EG (1981) The solar maximum mission. ApJ 244:L113–L115. doi:10.1086/183493
Clette F, Hochedez JF, Newmark JS, Moses JD, Auchère F, Defise JM, Delaboudinière JP (2002) The radiometric calibration of the extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope. ISSI Sci Rep Ser 2:121–134
Code AD (1960) Stellar energy distribution. In: Greenstein JL (ed) Stellar atmospheres, pp 50–87
Code AD, Houck TE, McNall JF, Bless RC, Lillie CF (1970) Ultraviolet photometry from the orbiting astronomical observatory. I. Instrum Oper ApJ 161:377–388. doi:10.1086/150545
Cohen M, Walker RG, Barlow MJ, Deacon JR (1992a) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. I—ground-based and IRAS broadband calibrations. AJ 104:1650–1657. doi:10.1086/116349
Cohen M, Walker RG, Witteborn FC (1992b) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. II—Alpha Tau and the recalibration of the IRAS low resolution spectrometer. AJ 104:2030–2044. doi:10.1086/116379
Cohen M, Walker RG, Jayaraman S, Barker E, Price SD (2001) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. XII. Radiometric measurements from the midcourse space experiment. AJ 121:1180–1191. doi:10.1086/318751
Cohen M, Wheaton WA, Megeath ST (2003) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. XIV. The absolute calibration of 2MASS. AJ 126:1090–1096. doi:10.1086/376474
Colina L, Bohlin RC (1994) Absolute flux calibration of optical spectrophotometric standard stars. AJ 108:1931–1935. doi:10.1086/117206
Conard SJ, Barkhouser RH, Evans JP, Friedman SD, Kruk JW, Moos HW, Ohl RG, Sahnow DJ (2000) Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer optical system: lessons learned. In: Fineschi S, Korendyke CM, Siegmund OH, Woodgate BE (eds) Instrumentation for UV/EUV astronomy and solar missions, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4139, pp 186–198
Cook AH (1994) The observational foundations of physics. Cambridge University Press, New York
Crommelynck D, Fichot A, Lee RB III, Romero J (1995) First realisation of the space absolute radiometric reference (SARR) during the ATLAS 2 flight period. Adv Space Res 16:17–23. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00261-C
Culhane JL, Harra LK, James AM, Al-Janabi K, Bradley LJ, Chaudry RA, Rees K, Tandy JA, Thomas P, Whillock MCR, Winter B, Doschek GA, Korendyke CM, Brown CM, Myers S, Mariska J, Seely J, Lang J, Kent BJ, Shaughnessy BM, Young PR, Simnett GM, Castelli CM, Mahmoud S, Mapson-Menard H, Probyn BJ, Thomas RJ, Davila J, Dere K, Windt D, Shea J, Hagood R, Moye R, Hara H, Watanabe T, Matsuzaki K, Kosugi T, Hansteen V, Wikstol Ø (2007) The EUV imaging spectrometer for Hinode. Sol Phys 243:19–61. doi:10.1007/s01007-007-0293-1
Danzmann K, Günther M, Fischer J, Kühne M, Kock M (1988) High current hollow cathode as a radiometric transfer standard source for the extreme vacuum ultraviolet. Appl Opt 27:4947–4951. doi:10.1364/AO.27.004947
Davidsen AF, Long KS, Durrance ST, Blair WP, Bowers CW, Conard SJ, Feldman PD, Ferguson HC, Fountain GH, Kimble RA, Kriss GA, Moos HW, Potocki KA (1992) The Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope—performance and calibration during the Astro-1 mission. ApJ 392:264–271. doi:10.1086/171424
De Pontieu B, Title AM, Lemen JR, Kushner GD, Akin DJ, Allard B, Berger T, Boerner P, Cheung M, Chou C, Drake JF, Duncan DW, Freeland S, Heyman GF, Hoffman C, Hurlburt NE, Lindgren RW, Mathur D, Rehse R, Sabolish D, Seguin R, Schrijver CJ, Tarbell TD, Wülser JP, Wolfson CJ, Yanari C, Mudge J, Nguyen-Phuc N, Timmons R, van Bezooijen R, Weingrod I, Brookner R, Butcher G, Dougherty B, Eder J, Knagenhjelm V, Larsen S, Mansir D, Phan L, Boyle P, Cheimets PN, DeLuca EE, Golub L, Gates R, Hertz E, McKillop S, Park S, Perry T, Podgorski WA, Reeves K, Saar S, Testa P, Tian H, Weber M, Dunn C, Eccles S, Jaeggli SA, Kankelborg CC, Mashburn K, Pust N, Springer L, Carvalho R, Kleint L, Marmie J, Mazmanian E, Pereira TMD, Sawyer S, Strong J, Worden SP, Carlsson M, Hansteen VH, Leenaarts J, Wiesmann M, Aloise J, Chu KC, Bush RI, Scherrer PH, Brekke P, Martinez-Sykora J, Lites BW, McIntosh SW, Uitenbroek H, Okamoto TJ, Gummin MA, Auker G, Jerram P, Pool P, Waltham N (2014) The interface region imaging spectrograph (IRIS). Sol. Phys. 289:2733–2779. doi:10.1007/s11207-014-0485-y
de Vries CP, den Herder JW, Gabriel C, Gonzalez-Riestra R, Ibarra A, Kaastra JS, Pollock AMT, Raassen AJJ, Paerels FBS (2015) Calibration and in-orbit performance of the reflection grating spectrometer onboard XMM-Newton. A&A 573:A128. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423704
Defise JM, Song XY, Delaboudiniere JP, Artzner GE, Carabetian C, Hochedez JFE, Brunaud J, Moses JD, Catura RC, Clette F, Maucherat AJ (1995) Calibration of the EIT instrument for the SOHO mission. In: Fineschi S (ed) X-ray and EUV/FUV spectroscopy and polarimetry, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 2517, pp 29–39
Del Zanna G, Bromage BJI, Landi E, Landini M (2001) Solar EUV spectroscopic observations with SOHO/CDS. I. An in-flight calibration study. A&A 379:708–734. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011220
Del Zanna G, Andretta V, Chamberlin PC, Woods TN, Thompson WT (2010) The EUV spectrum of the Sun: long-term variations in the SOHO CDS NIS spectral responsivities. A&A 518:A49. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912904
Delaboudinière JP, Artzner GE, Brunaud J, Gabriel AH, Hochedez JF, Millier F, Song XY, Au B, Dere KP, Howard RA, Kreplin R, Michels DJ, Moses JD, Defise JM, Jamar C, Rochus P, Chauvineau JP, Marioge JP, Catura RC, Lemen JR, Shing L, Stern RA, Gurman JB, Neupert WM, Maucherat A, Clette F, Cugnon P, van Dessel EL (1995) EIT: extreme-ultraviolet imaging telescope for the SOHO mission. Sol Phys 162:291–312. doi:10.1007/BF00733432
den Herder JW, Brinkman AC, Kahn SM, Branduardi-Raymont G, Thomsen K, Aarts H, Audard M, Bixler JV, den Boggende AJ, Cottam J, Decker T, Dubbeldam L, Erd C, Goulooze H, Güdel M, Guttridge P, Hailey CJ, Janabi KA, Kaastra JS, de Korte PAJ, van Leeuwen BJ, Mauche C, McCalden AJ, Mewe R, Naber A, Paerels FB, Peterson JR, Rasmussen AP, Rees K, Sakelliou I, Sako M, Spodek J, Stern M, Tamura T, Tandy J, de Vries CP, Welch S, Zehnder A (2001) The reflection grating spectrometer on board XMM-Newton. A&A 365:L7–L17. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000058
Didkovsky L, Judge D, Wieman S, Woods T, Jones A (2012) EUV spectrophotometer (ESP) in extreme ultraviolet variability experiment (EVE): algorithms and calibrations. Sol Phys 275:179–205. doi:10.1007/s11207-009-9485-8
Dixon WV, Blair WP, Kruk JW, Romelfanger ML (2013) The Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope: the final archive. PASP 125:431–443. doi:10.1086/670227
Dudok de Wit T (2011) A method for filling gaps in solar irradiance and solar proxy data. A&A 533:A29. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117024
Dudok de Wit T (2014) Some regression problems in solar-terrestrial sciences: learning from mistakes. In: Fraix-Burnet D (ed) EAS publications series, vol 66, pp 77–87. doi:10.1051/eas/1466007
Engelke CW, Price SD, Kraemer KE (2006) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. XVI. Improved accuracy in the infrared spectra of the secondary and tertiary standard calibration stars. AJ 132:1445–1463. doi:10.1086/505865
Engelke CW, Price SD, Kraemer KE (2010) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. XVII. Zero-magnitude broadband flux reference for visible-to-infrared photometry. AJ 140:1919–1928. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/6/1919
European Space Agency (1994) Horizon 2000 plus—European space science in the 21st century. Tech. rep., ESA, ESA SP-1180
Fazio GG, Hora JL, Allen LE, Ashby MLN, Barmby P, Deutsch LK, Huang JS, Kleiner S, Marengo M, Megeath ST, Melnick GJ, Pahre MA, Patten BM, Polizotti J, Smith HA, Taylor RS, Wang Z, Willner SP, Hoffmann WF, Pipher JL, Forrest WJ, McMurty CW, McCreight CR, McKelvey ME, McMurray RE, Koch DG, Moseley SH, Arendt RG, Mentzell JE, Marx CT, Losch P, Mayman P, Eichhorn W, Krebs D, Jhabvala M, Gezari DY, Fixsen DJ, Flores J, Shakoorzadeh K, Jungo R, Hakun C, Workman L, Karpati G, Kichak R, Whitley R, Mann S, Tollestrup EV, Eisenhardt P, Stern D, Gorjian V, Bhattacharya B, Carey S, Nelson BO, Glaccum WJ, Lacy M, Lowrance PJ, Laine S, Reach WT, Stauffer JA, Surace JA, Wilson G, Wright EL, Hoffman A, Domingo G, Cohen M (2004) The infrared array camera (IRAC) for the Spitzer space telescope. ApJS 154:10–17. doi:10.1086/422843
Finley DS, Basri G, Bowyer S (1984) Self-consistent recalibration of IUE determination of hot DA white dwarf effective temperatures. In: Mead JM, Chapman RD, Kondo Y (eds) NASA conference publication, vol 2349, pp 277–280
Finley DS, Basri G, Bowyer S (1990) The temperature scale of hot DA white dwarfs—temperatures from far-ultraviolet continuum fluxes. ApJ 359:483–498. doi:10.1086/169080
Fleck B, Domingo V, Poland AI (1995) The SOHO mission: an overview. Sol Phys 162(1–2):1–37
Foukal PV, Hoyt C, Kochling H, Miller P (1990) Cryogenic absolute radiometers as laboratory irradiance standards, remote sensing detectors, and pyroheliometers. Appl Opt 29(7):988–993. doi:10.1364/AO.29.000988. http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-29-7-988
Fox NP, Martin JE (1990) Comparison of two cryogenic radiometers by determining the absolute spectral responsivity of silicon photodiodes with an uncertainty of 0.02 %. Appl Opt 29(31):4686–4693. doi:10.1364/AO.29.004686. http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-29-31-4686
Frazin RA, Romoli M, Kohl JL, Gardner LD, Wang D, Howard RA, Kucera TA (2002) White light intercalibrations of UVCS, LASCO-C2 and Spartan 201/WLC. ISSI Sci Rep Ser 2:249–263
Freyberg MJ, Bräuninger H, Burkert W, Hartner GD, Citterio O, Mazzoleni F, Pareschi G, Spiga D, Romaine S, Gorenstein P, Ramsey BD (2005) The MPE X-ray test facility PANTER: calibration of hard X-ray (15–50 kev) optics. Exp Astron 20:405–412. doi:10.1007/s10686-006-9068-8
Fröhlich C (2013) Solar radiometry. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 565–581
Fröhlich C (2015a) Degradation of radiometers in space: application to VIRGO TSI. Metrologia. ftp://ftp.pmodwrc.ch/pub/Claus/VIRGO-TSI/VIRGO_TSI-vers64.pdf
Fröhlich C (2015b) VIRGO radiometry: update of the characterization. Metrologia. ftp://ftp.pmodwrc.ch/pub/Claus/VIRGO-TSI/VIRGO_2CharSpace.pdf
Fröhlich C, Lean J (1998) Total solar irradiance variations: the construction of a composite and its comparison with models. In: Deubner FL, Christensen-Dalsgaard J, Kurtz D (eds) IAU symposium 185: new eyes to see inside the sun and stars. Kluwer Academic Publ., The Netherlands, pp 89–102
Fröhlich C, Crommelynck DA, Wehrli C, Anklin M, Dewitte S, Fichot A, Finsterle W, Jiménez A, Chevalier A, Roth H (1997) In-flight performance of the VIRGO solar irradiance instruments on SOHO. Sol Phys 175:267–286. doi:10.1023/A:1004929108864
Fulton T, Hopwood R, Baluteau JP, Benielli D, Imhof P, Lim T, Lu N, Marchili N, Naylor D, Polehampton E, Swinyard B, Valtchanov I (2014) Herschel SPIRE FTS relative spectral response calibration. Exp Astron 37:381–395. doi:10.1007/s10686-013-9364-z
Gardner LD, Kohl JL, Daigneau PS, Dennis EF, Fineschi S, Michels J, Nystrom GU, Panasyuk A, Raymond JC, Reisenfeld DJ, Smith PL, Strachan L, Suleiman R, Noci GC, Romoli M, Ciaravella A, Modigliani A, Huber MC, Antonucci E, Benna C, Giordano S, Tondello G, Nicolosi P, Naletto G, Pernechele C, Spadaro D, Siegmund OH, Allegra A, Carosso PA, Jhabvala MD (1996) Stray light, radiometric, and spectral characterization of UVCS/SOHO: laboratory calibration and flight performance. In: Huffman RE, Stergis CG (eds) Ultraviolet atmospheric and space remote sensing: methods and instrumentation, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 2831, pp 2–24
Gardner LD, Atkins N, Fineschi S, Smith PL, Kohl JL, Maccari L, Romoli M (2000) Efficiency variations of UVCS/SOHO based on laboratory measurements of replica gratings. In: Fineschi S, Korendyke CM, Siegmund OH, Woodgate BE (eds) Instrumentation for UV/EUV astronomy and solar missions, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4139, pp 362–369
Gardner LD, Smith PL, Kohl JL, Atkins N, Ciaravella A, Miralles MP, Panasyuk A, Raymond JC, Strachan L Jr, Suleiman RM, Romoli M, Fineschi S (2002) UV radiometric calibration of UVCS. In: Pauluhn A, Huber M, von Steiger R (eds) The radiometric calibration of SOHO, vol 2. ESA, Noordwijk, pp 161–180 (ISSI Scientific Report SR-002)
Giacconi R, Kellogg E, Gorenstein P, Gursky H, Tananbaum H (1971) An X-ray scan of the galactic plane from UHURU. ApJ 165:L27–L35. doi:10.1086/180711
Goebel R, Yilmaz S, Köhler R (1996) Stability under vacuum of silicon trap detectors and their use as transfer instruments in cryogenic radiometry. Appl Opt 35:4404–4407. doi:10.1364/AO.35.004404
Golub L, Deluca E, Austin G, Bookbinder J, Caldwell D, Cheimets P, Cirtain J, Cosmo M, Reid P, Sette A, Weber M, Sakao T, Kano R, Shibasaki K, Hara H, Tsuneta S, Kumagai K, Tamura T, Shimojo M, McCracken J, Carpenter J, Haight H, Siler R, Wright E, Tucker J, Rutledge H, Barbera M, Peres G, Varisco S (2007) The X-ray telescope (XRT) for the Hinode mission. Sol Phys 243:63–86. doi:10.1007/s11207-007-0182-1
Gondoin P, Aschenbach BR, Bräuninger H, de Chambure D, Collette JP, Egger R, van Katwijk K, Lumb DH, Peacock AJ, Stockman Y, Tock JP, Willingale R (1996) X-ray performance of a qualification model of an XMM mirror module. In: Siegmund OH, Gummin MA (eds) EUV, X-ray, and gamma-ray instrumentation for astronomy vii, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 2808, pp 390–401
Gondoin P, Aschenbach BR, Beijersbergen MW, Egger R, Jansen FA, Stockman Y, Tock JP (1998) Calibration of the first XXM flight mirror module: II. Effective area. In: Hoover RB, Walker AB (eds) X-ray optics, instruments, and missions, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3444, pp 290–301
Gottwald A, Klein R, Krumrey M, Müller P, Paustian W, Reichel T, Scholze F, Thornagel R (2014) Radiometrische Charakterisierung von Weltrauminstrumentierung. Sonderdruck aus PTB-Mitteilungen 3:4
Greenstein JL, Oke JB (1979) Ultraviolet spectrophotometry of degenerate stars. ApJ 229:L141–L144. doi:10.1086/182948
Grewing M, Appenzeller I, Barnstedt J, Bowyer S, Hurwitz M, Krämer G, Kappelmann N, Krautter J, Mandel H (1998) ORFEUS. In: Wamsteker W, Gonzalez Riestra R, Harris B (eds) Ultraviolet astrophysics beyond the IUE final archive, vol 413. ESA Special Publication, p 757
Griffin M, Ade P (2013) Narrow-band imaging by use of interferometers. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 333–348
Güver T, Özel F, Marshall H, Psaltis D, Guainazzi M, Díaz-Trigo M (2015) Systematic uncertainties in the spectroscopic measurements of neutron-star masses and radii from thermonuclear X-ray bursts. III. Absolute flux calibration. ArXiv e-prints
Handy BN, Bruner ME, Tarbell TD, Title AM, Wolfson CJ, Laforge MJ, Oliver JJ (1998) UV observations with the transition region and coronal explorer. Sol Phys 183:29–43. doi:10.1023/A:1005079622620
Handy BN, Acton LW, Kankelborg CC, Wolfson CJ, Akin DJ, Bruner ME, Caravalho R, Catura RC, Chevalier R, Duncan DW, Edwards CG, Feinstein CN, Freeland SL, Friedlaender FM, Hoffmann CH, Hurlburt NE, Jurcevich BK, Katz NL, Kelly GA, Lemen JR, Levay M, Lindgren RW, Mathur DP, Meyer SB, Morrison SJ, Morrison MD, Nightingale RW, Pope TP, Rehse RA, Schrijver CJ, Shine RA, Shing L, Strong KT, Tarbell TD, Title AM, Torgerson DD, Golub L, Bookbinder JA, Caldwell D, Cheimets PN, Davis WN, Deluca EE, McMullen RA, Warren HP, Amato D, Fisher R, Maldonado H, Parkinson C (1999) The transition region and coronal explorer. Sol Phys 187:229–260. doi:10.1023/A:1005166902804
Harrison FA, Craig WW, Christensen FE, Hailey CJ, Zhang WW, Boggs SE, Stern D, Cook WR, Forster K, Giommi P, Grefenstette BW, Kim Y, Kitaguchi T, Koglin JE, Madsen KK, Mao PH, Miyasaka H, Mori K, Perri M, Pivovaroff MJ, Puccetti S, Rana VR, Westergaard NJ, Willis J, Zoglauer A, An H, Bachetti M, Barrière NM, Bellm EC, Bhalerao V, Brejnholt NF, Fuerst F, Liebe CC, Markwardt CB, Nynka M, Vogel JK, Walton DJ, Wik DR, Alexander DM, Cominsky LR, Hornschemeier AE, Hornstrup A, Kaspi VM, Madejski GM, Matt G, Molendi S, Smith DM, Tomsick JA, Ajello M, Ballantyne DR, Baloković M, Barret D, Bauer FE, Blandford RD, Brandt WN, Brenneman LW, Chiang J, Chakrabarty D, Chenevez J, Comastri A, Dufour F, Elvis M, Fabian AC, Farrah D, Fryer CL, Gotthelf EV, Grindlay JE, Helfand DJ, Krivonos R, Meier DL, Miller JM, Natalucci L, Ogle P, Ofek EO, Ptak A, Reynolds SP, Rigby JR, Tagliaferri G, Thorsett SE, Treister E, Urry CM (2013) The nuclear spectroscopic telescope array (NuSTAR) high-energy X-ray mission. ApJ 770:103. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/103
Harrison RA, Sawyer EC, Carter MK, Cruise AM, Cutler RM, Fludra A, Hayes RW, Kent BJ, Lang J, Parker DJ, Payne J, Pike CD, Peskett SC, Richards AG, Gulhane JL, Norman K, Breeveld AA, Breeveld ER, Al Janabi KF, McCalden AJ, Parkinson JH, Self DG, Thomas PD, Poland AI, Thomas RJ, Thompson WT, Kjeldseth-Moe O, Brekke P, Karud J, Maltby P, Aschenbach B, Bräuninger H, Kühne M, Hollandt J, Siegmund OHW, Huber MCE, Gabriel AH, Mason HE, Bromage BJI (1995) The coronal diagnostic spectrometer for the solar and heliospheric observatory. Sol Phys 162:233–290. doi:10.1007/BF00733431
Harrison RA, Kent BJ, Sawyer EC, Hollandt J, Kuhne M, Paustian W, Wende B, Huber MCE (1996) The coronal diagnostic spectrometer for the solar and heliospheric observatory: experiment description and calibration. Metrologia 32:647–652
Hartmann J (2009) High-temperature measurement techniques for the application in photometry, radiometry and thermometry. Phys Rep 469:205–269
Hayes DS (1985) Stellar absolute fluxes and energy distributions from 0.32 to 4.0 microns. In: Hayes DS, Pasinetti LE, Philip AGD (eds) Calibration of fundamental stellar quantities, IAU symposium, vol 111, pp 225–249
Hayes DS, Latham DW (1975) A rediscussion of the atmospheric extinction and the absolute spectral-energy distribution of VEGA. ApJ 197:593–601. doi:10.1086/153548
Heise C, Kling R, Kock M, Hollandt J, Kühne M (1994) Radiometric characterization of a Penning discharge in the vacuum ultraviolet. Appl Opt 33:5111–5117. doi:10.1364/AO.33.005111
Henry RC, Weinstein A, Feldman PD, Fastie WG, Moos HW (1975) Low-resolution ultraviolet spectroscopy of several hot stars observed from Apollo 17. ApJ 201:613–623. doi:10.1086/153928
Hinteregger HE, Hall LA (1969) Solar extreme ultraviolet emissions in the range 260–1300 Å observed from OSO-III. Sol Phys 6:175–182. doi:10.1007/BF00150942
Hock RA, Chamberlin PC, Woods TN, Crotser D, Eparvier FG, Woodraska DL, Woods EC (2012) Extreme ultraviolet variability experiment (EVE) multiple EUV grating spectrographs (MEGS): radiometric calibrations and results. Sol Phys 275:145–178. doi:10.1007/s11207-010-9520-9
Holberg JB, Basile J, Wesemael F (1986) DA white dwarf effective temperatures determined from IUE Lyman-alpha profiles. ApJ 306:629–641. doi:10.1086/164372
Holberg JB, Ali B, Carone TE, Polidan RS (1991) Absolute far-ultraviolet spectrophotometry of hot subluminous stars from Voyager. ApJ 375:716–721. doi:10.1086/170237
Hollandt J, Kühne M, Wende B (1994) High-current hollow-cathode source as a radiant intensity standard in the 40–125-nm wavelength range. Appl Opt 33:68–74
Hollandt J, Kuehne M, Huber MCE, Wende B (1996) Source standards for the radiometric calibration of astronomical telescopes in the VUV spectral range. A&AS 115:561–572
Hollandt J, Seidel J, Klein R, Ulm G, Migdall A, Ware M (2005) Primary sources for use in radiometry. Opt Radiom Ser Exp Methods Phys Sci 41:213–290. doi:10.1016/S1079-4042(05)41005-X
Hovestadt D, Hilchenbach M, Bürgi A, Klecker B, Laeverenz P, Scholer M, Grünwaldt H, Axford WI, Livi S, Marsch E, Wilken B, Winterhoff HP, Ipavich FM, Bedini P, Coplan MA, Galvin AB, Gloeckler G, Bochsler P, Balsiger H, Fischer J, Geiss J, Kallenbach R, Wurz P, Reiche KU, Gliem F, Judge DL, Ogawa HS, Hsieh KC, Möbius E, Lee MA, Managadze GG, Verigin MI, Neugebauer M (1995) CELIAS—charge, element and isotope analysis system for SOHO. Sol Phys 162:441–481. doi:10.1007/BF00733436
Howard RA, Moses JD, Vourlidas A, Newmark JS, Socker DG, Plunkett SP, Korendyke CM, Cook JW, Hurley A, Davila JM, Thompson WT, St Cyr OC, Mentzell E, Mehalick K, Lemen JR, Wuelser JP, Duncan DW, Tarbell TD, Wolfson CJ, Moore A, Harrison RA, Waltham NR, Lang J, Davis CJ, Eyles CJ, Mapson-Menard H, Simnett GM, Halain JP, Defise JM, Mazy E, Rochus P, Mercier R, Ravet MF, Delmotte F, Auchere F, Delaboudiniere JP, Bothmer V, Deutsch W, Wang D, Rich N, Cooper S, Stephens V, Maahs G, Baugh R, McMullin D, Carter T (2008) Sun Earth connection coronal and heliospheric investigation (SECCHI). Space Sci Rev 136:67–115. doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9341-4
Hoyt CC, Foukal PV (1991) Cryogenic radiometers and their application to metrology. Metrologia 28(28):163–167
Huber MCE, Dupree AK, Goldberg L, Noyes RW, Parkinson WH, Reeves EM, Withbroe GL (1973) The harvard experiment on OSO-6: instrumentation, calibration, operation, and description of observations. ApJ 183:291–312. doi:10.1086/152227
Huber MCE, Reeves EM, Timothy JG (1974) Photometric calibration of an extreme-ultraviolet spectroheliometer for the skylab mission. In: Thompson BJ, Shannon RR (eds) Space optics, p 33
Huber MCE, Pauluhn A, Culhane JL, Timothy JG, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (2013) Observing photons in space: a guide to experimental astronomy, 2nd edn. Springer, New York
Humphries CM, Jamar C, Malaise D, Wroe H (1976) Absolute calibration of the ultraviolet sky survey telescope in satellite TD 1. A&A 49:389–406
Hurwitz M, Bowyer S, Bristol R, Van Dyke Dixon W, Dupuis J, Edelstein J, Jelinsky P, Sasseen TP, Siegmund O (1998) Far-ultraviolet performance of the Berkeley spectrograph during the ORFEUS-SPAS II mission. ApJ 500:L1–L7. doi:10.1086/311388
Jansen F, Lumb D, Altieri B, Clavel J, Ehle M, Erd C, Gabriel C, Guainazzi M, Gondoin P, Much R, Munoz R, Santos M, Schartel N, Texier D, Vacanti G (2001) XMM-Newton observatory. I. The spacecraft and operations. A&A 365:L1–L6. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000036
Kaase H, Bischoff K, Metzdorf J (1984) Quantitative Spektralradiometrie auf der Basis eines Schwarzen Strahlers hoher Temperatur und großer Strahlerfläche. Licht-Forschung 6:29–34
Kaiser ME, Kruk JW, McCandliss SR, Sahnow DJ, Rauscher BJ, Benford DJ, Bohlin RC, Deustua SE, Dixon WV, Feldman PD, Gardner JP, Kimble RA, Kurucz R, Lampton M, Moos HW, Perlmutter S, Riess AG, Woodgate BE, Wright EL (2008a) ACCESS: absolute color calibration experiment for standard stars. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 7014, p 5. doi:10.1117/12.790106
Kaiser ME, Morris MJ, Peacock GO, McCandliss SR, Rauscher BJ, Kimble RA, Kruk JW, Pelton R, Wright EL, Mott DB, Wen Y, Feldman PD, Moos HW, Riess AG, Gardner JP, Benford DJ, Woodgate BE, Bohlin R, Deustua SE, Dixon WV, Sahnow DJ, Kurucz R, Lampton M, Perlmutter S (2014) ACCESS: status and pre-flight performance. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 9143, p 4. doi:10.1117/12.2057689
Kaiser ML, Kucera TA, Davila JM, St Cyr OC, Guhathakurta M, Christian E (2008b) The STEREO mission: an introduction. Space Sci Rev 136:5–16. doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9277-0
Kanbach G, Schönfelder V, Zehnder A (2013) High-energy astrophysics—energies above 100 keV. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 55–72
Kano R, Sakao T, Hara H, Tsuneta S, Matsuzaki K, Kumagai K, Shimojo M, Minesugi K, Shibasaki K, Deluca EE, Golub L, Bookbinder J, Caldwell D, Cheimets P, Cirtain J, Dennis E, Kent T, Weber M (2008) The Hinode X-ray telescope (XRT): camera design, performance and operations. Sol Phys 249:263–279. doi:10.1007/s11207-007-9058-7
Kellogg EM, Cohen LM, Edgar RJ, Evans IN, Freeman MD, Gaetz TJ, Jerius D, McDermott WC, McKinnon PJ, Murray SS, Podgorski WA, Schwartz DA, van Speybroeck LP, Wargelin BJ, Zombeck MV, Weisskopf MC, Elsner RF, O’dell SL, Tennant AF, Kolodziejczak JJ, Garmire GP, Nousek JA, Kraft S, Scholze F, Thornagel R, Ulm G, Flanagan KA, Dewey D, Bautz MW, Texter SC, Arenberg JW, Carlson R (1997) Absolute calibration of the AXAF telescope effective area. In: Hoover RB, Walker AB (eds) Grazing incidence and multilayer X-ray optical systems, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3113, pp 515–525
Kent S, Kaiser MB, Deustua SE, Smith JA, Adelman S, Allam S, Baptista B, Bohlin RC, Clem JL, Conley A, Edelstein J, Elias J, Glass I, Henden A, Howell S, Kimble RA, Kruk JW, Lampton M, Magnier EA, McCandliss SR, Moos W, Mostek N, Mufson S, Oswalt TD, Perlmutter S, Allende Prieto C, Rauscher BJ, Riess A, Saha A, Sullivan M, Suntzeff N, Tokunaga A, Tucker D, Wing R, Woodgate B, Wright EL (2009) Photometric calibrations for 21st century science. In: astro2010: the astronomy and astrophysics decadal survey, astronomy, vol 2010, p 155
Kessler MF, Steinz JA, Anderegg ME, Clavel J, Drechsel G, Estaria P, Faelker J, Riedinger JR, Robson A, Taylor BG, Ximénez de Ferrán S (1996) The Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) mission. A&A 315:L27–L31
Kim SS, Roh HS, Cho KS, Shin J (2006) Calibration of TRACE Lyman-\(\alpha \) images using SOHO/SUMER observations. A&A 456:747–750. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054714
Klein R, Brandt G, Fliegauf R, Hoehl A, Müller R, Thornagel R, Ulm G (2009) The Metrology Light Source operated as a primary source standard. Metrologia 46:266. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/46/4/S25
Klose JZ, Bridges JM, Ott WR (1988) Radiometric calibrations of portable sources in the vacuum ultraviolet. J Res 93:21–39
Kohl JL, Esser R, Gardner LD, Habbal S, Daigneau PS, Dennis EF, Nystrom GU, Panasyuk A, Raymond JC, Smith PL, Strachan L, van Ballegooijen AA, Noci G, Fineschi S, Romoli M, Ciaravella A, Modigliani A, Huber MCE, Antonucci E, Benna C, Giordano S, Tondello G, Nicolosi P, Naletto G, Pernechele C, Spadaro D, Poletto G, Livi S, von der Lühe O, Geiss J, Timothy JG, Gloeckler G, Allegra A, Basile G, Brusa R, Wood B, Siegmund OHW, Fowler W, Fisher R, Jhabvala M (1995) The ultraviolet coronagraph spectrometer for the solar and heliospheric observatory. Sol Phys 162:313–356. doi:10.1007/BF00733433
Kopp G, Heuerman K, Lawrence G (2005) The total irradiance monitor (TIM): instrument calibration. Sol Phys 230:111–127. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-7447-3
Kruk JW, Kimble RA, Buss RH Jr, Davidsen AF, Durrance ST, Finley DS, Holberg JB, Kriss GA (1997) Final Astro-1 calibration of the Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope: a test of white dwarf model atmospheres as far-ultraviolet calibration standards. ApJ 482:546–568
Kruk JW, Brown TM, Davidsen AF, Espey BR, Finley DS, Kriss GA (1999) Final Astro-2 calibration of the Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope. ApJS 122:299–329. doi:10.1086/313217
Kurucz RL (1979) Model atmospheres for G, F, A, B, and O stars. ApJS 40:1–340. doi:10.1086/190589
Kurucz RL (1993) VizieR online data catalog: model atmospheres (Kurucz, 1979). VizieR online data catalog 6039:0
Kurucz RL (2013) ATLAS12: opacity sampling model atmosphere program. Astrophysics Source Code Library
Kuschnerus P, Rabus H, Richter M, Scholze F, Werner L, Ulm G (1998) Characterization of photodiodes as transfer detector standards in the 120 nm to 600 nm spectral range. Metrologia 35:355. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/35/4/23
Lamarre JM, Dole H (2013) The cosmic microwave background. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 165–182
Lang J, Brown CM, Magraw JE, Payne J (1993) The laboratory calibration of the Yohkoh Bragg crystal spectrometer. Tech. rep., Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, rAL-93-035
Lang J, Kent BJ, Breeveld AA, Breeveld ER, Bromage BJI, Hollandt J, Payne J, Pike CD, Thompson WT (2000) The laboratory calibration of the SOHO Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer. J Opt A Pure Appl Opt 2:88–106. doi:10.1088/1464-4258/2/2/305
Lang J, Kent BJ, Paustian W, Brown CM, Keyser C, Anderson MR, Case GCR, Chaudry RA, James AM, Korendyke CM, Pike CD, Probyn BJ, Rippington DJ, Seely JF, Tandy JA, Whillock MCR (2006) Laboratory calibration of the Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer for the Solar-B satellite. Appl Opt 45:8689–8705. doi:10.1364/AO.45.008689
Laureijs R, Gondoin P, Duvet L, Saavedra Criado G, Hoar J, Amiaux J, Auguères JL, Cole R, Cropper M, Ealet A, Ferruit P, Escudero Sanz I, Jahnke K, Kohley R, Maciaszek T, Mellier Y, Oosterbroek T, Pasian F, Sauvage M, Scaramella R, Sirianni M, Valenziano L (2012) Euclid: ESA’s mission to map the geometry of the dark universe. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 8442. doi:10.1117/12.926496
Lawrence GM, Harder JW, Rottman GJ, Woods TN, Richardson J, Mount G (1998) Stability considerations for a solar spectral intensity monitor (SIM). In: Chen PT, McClintock WE, Rottman GJ (eds) Optical systems contamination and degradation, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3427, pp 477–485. doi:10.1117/12.328519
Lemaire P (2002) Stellar observations. In: Pauluhn A, Huber M, von Steiger R (eds) The radiometric calibration of SOHO, vol 2. ESA, Noordwijk, pp 265–279 (ISSI Scientific Report SR-002)
Lemen JR, Title AM, Akin DJ, Boerner PF, Chou C, Drake JF, Duncan DW, Edwards CG, Friedlaender FM, Heyman GF, Hurlburt NE, Katz NL, Kushner GD, Levay M, Lindgren RW, Mathur DP, McFeaters EL, Mitchell S, Rehse RA, Schrijver CJ, Springer LA, Stern RA, Tarbell TD, Wuelser JP, Wolfson CJ, Yanari C, Bookbinder JA, Cheimets PN, Caldwell D, Deluca EE, Gates R, Golub L, Park S, Podgorski WA, Bush RI, Scherrer PH, Gummin MA, Smith P, Auker G, Jerram P, Pool P, Soufli R, Windt DL, Beardsley S, Clapp M, Lang J, Waltham N (2012) The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Sol Phys 275:17–40. doi:10.1007/s11207-011-9776-8
Lin RP, Dennis BR, Hurford GJ, Smith DM, Zehnder A, Harvey PR, Curtis DW, Pankow D, Turin P, Bester M, Csillaghy A, Lewis M, Madden N, van Beek HF, Appleby M, Raudorf T, McTiernan J, Ramaty R, Schmahl E, Schwartz R, Krucker S, Abiad R, Quinn T, Berg P, Hashii M, Sterling R, Jackson R, Pratt R, Campbell RD, Malone D, Landis D, Barrington-Leigh CP, Slassi-Sennou S, Cork C, Clark D, Amato D, Orwig L, Boyle R, Banks IS, Shirey K, Tolbert AK, Zarro D, Snow F, Thomsen K, Henneck R, McHedlishvili A, Ming P, Fivian M, Jordan J, Wanner R, Crubb J, Preble J, Matranga M, Benz A, Hudson H, Canfield RC, Holman GD, Crannell C, Kosugi T, Emslie AG, Vilmer N, Brown JC, Johns-Krull C, Aschwanden M, Metcalf T, Conway A (2002) The Reuven Ramaty high-energy solar spectroscopic imager (RHESSI). Sol Phys 210:3–32. doi:10.1023/A:1022428818870
Lindegren L, Babusiaux C, Bailer-Jones C, Bastian U, Brown AGA, Cropper M, Høg E, Jordi C, Katz D, van Leeuwen F, Luri X, Mignard F, de Bruijne JHJ, Prusti T (2008) The Gaia mission: science, organization and present status. In: Jin WJ, Platais I, Perryman MAC (eds) IAU symposium, vol 248, pp 217–223. doi:10.1017/S1743921308019133
Llebaria A, Lamy PL, Bout MV (2004) Lessons learned from the SOHO/LASCO-C2 calibration. In: Fineschi S, Gummin MA (eds) Telescopes and instrumentation for solar astrophysics, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (spie) conference series, vol 5171, pp 26–37. doi:10.1117/12.506159
Lockwood GW, Tüg H, White NM (1992) A new solar irradiance calibration from 3295 A to 8500 A derived from absolute spectrophotometry of VEGA. ApJ 390:668–678. doi:10.1086/171318
Madden R, Canfield LR, Furst M, Hamilton A, Hughey L (1992) SURF-II: characteristics, facilities, and plans. Rev Sci Instrum 63:1594–1595
Madsen KK, Harrison FA, An H, Boggs SE, Christensen FE, Cook R, Craig WW, Forster K, Fuerst F, Grefenstette B, Hailey CJ, Kitaguchi T, Markwardt C, Mao P, Miyasaka H, Rana VR, Stern DK, Zhang WW, Zoglauer A, Walton D, Westergaard NJ (2014) The nuclear spectroscopic telescope array (NuSTAR) high-energy X-ray mission. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 9144, p 1. doi:10.1117/12.2056643
Mather JC, Fixsen DJ, Shafer RA, Mosier C, Wilkinson DT (1999) Calibrator design for the COBE far-infrared absolute spectrophotometer (FIRAS). ApJ 512:511–520. doi:10.1086/306805
McClintock WE, Rottman GJ, Woods TN (2005a) Solar-stellar irradiance comparison experiment II (SOLSTICE II): instrument concept and design. Sol Phys 230:225–258. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-7432-x
McClintock WE, Snow M, Woods TN (2005b) Solar-stellar irradiance comparison experiment II (SOLSTICE II): pre-launch and on-orbit calibrations. Sol Phys 230:259–294. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-1585-5
McGraw JT, Zimmer PC, Zirzow DC, Woodward JT, Lykke KR, Cramer CE, Deustua SE, Hines DC (2012) Near-field calibration of an objective spectrophotometer to NIST radiometric standards for the creation and maintenance of standard stars for ground- and space-based applications. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 8450, p 11. doi:10.1117/12.927296
McMullin DR, Judge DL, Hilchenbach M, Ipavich F, Bochsler P, Wurz P, Burgi A, Thompson WT, Newmark JS (2002) In-flight comparisons of Solar EUV irradiance measurements provided by the CELIAS/SEM on SOHO. ISSI Sci Rep Ser 2:135–144
Mégessier C (1995) Accuracy of the astrophysical absolute flux calibrations: visible and near-infrared. A&A 296:771–778
Mekaoui S, Dewitte S, Conscience C, Chevalier A (2010) Total solar irradiance absolute level from DIARAD/SOVIM on the International Space Station. Adv Space Res 45:1393–1406. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2010.02.014
Mironov A, Zakharov A, Ambartsumyan A (2007) Improved photometric accuracy and the creation of an all-sky high-accuracy stellar standard system. In: Sterken C (ed) The future of photometric, spectrophotometric and polarimetric standardization, astronomical society of the pacific conference series, vol 364, pp 77–80
Morrill JS, Korendyke CM, Brueckner GE, Giovane F, Howard RA, Koomen M, Moses D, Plunkett SP, Vourlidas A, Esfandiari E, Rich N, Wang D, Thernisien AF, Lamy P, Llebaria A, Biesecker D, Michels D, Gong Q, Andrews M (2006) Calibration of the Soho/Lasco C3 white light coronagraph. Sol Phys 233:331–372. doi:10.1007/s11207-006-2058-1
Möstl K (1991) Radiometry. In: Bortfeldt J, Kramer B (eds) Landolt-Börnstein (new series), units and fundamental constants in physics and chemistry, vol A. Springer, Berlin, pp 2-348–2-362
Mountain CM, Selby MJ, Leggett SK, Blackwell DE, Petford AD (1985) Measurement of the absolute flux from VEGA at 4.92 microns. A&A 151:399–402
Mozurkewich D, Armstrong JT, Hindsley RB, Quirrenbach A, Hummel CA, Hutter DJ, Johnston KJ, Hajian AR, Elias NM II, Buscher DF, Simon RS (2003) Angular diameters of stars from the Mark III optical interferometer. AJ 126:2502–2520. doi:10.1086/378596
Müller T, Balog Z, Nielbock M, Lim T, Teyssier D, Olberg M, Klaas U, Linz H, Altieri B, Pearson C, Bendo G, Vilenius E (2014) Herschel celestial calibration sources. Four large main-belt asteroids as prime flux calibrators for the far-IR/sub-mm range. Exp Astron 37:253–330. doi:10.1007/s10686-013-9357-y
Murakami H, Baba H, Barthel P, Clements DL, Cohen M, Doi Y, Enya K, Figueredo E, Fujishiro N, Fujiwara H, Fujiwara M, Garcia-Lario P, Goto T, Hasegawa S, Hibi Y, Hirao T, Hiromoto N, Hong SS, Imai K, Ishigaki M, Ishiguro M, Ishihara D, Ita Y, Jeong WS, Jeong KS, Kaneda H, Kataza H, Kawada M, Kawai T, Kawamura A, Kessler MF, Kester D, Kii T, Kim DC, Kim W, Kobayashi H, Koo BC, Kwon SM, Lee HM, Lorente R, Makiuti S, Matsuhara H, Matsumoto T, Matsuo H, Matsuura S, Müller TG, Murakami N, Nagata H, Nakagawa T, Naoi T, Narita M, Noda M, Oh SH, Ohnishi A, Ohyama Y, Okada Y, Okuda H, Oliver S, Onaka T, Ootsubo T, Oyabu S, Pak S, Park YS, Pearson CP, Rowan-Robinson M, Saito T, Sakon I, Salama A, Sato S, Savage RS, Serjeant S, Shibai H, Shirahata M, Sohn J, Suzuki T, Takagi T, Takahashi H, Tanabé T, Takeuchi TT, Takita S, Thomson M, Uemizu K, Ueno M, Usui F, Verdugo E, Wada T, Wang L, Watabe T, Watarai H, White GJ, Yamamura I, Yamauchi C, Yasuda A (2007) The infrared astronomical mission AKARI. PASJ 59:369. doi:10.1093/pasj/59.sp2.S369
Murakami N, Kawada M, Ootsubo T, Okada Y, Takahashi H, Yasuda A, Kaneda H, Matsuo H, Baluteau JP, Davis-Imhof P, Gom BG, Naylor DA, Zavagno A, Yamamura I, Matsuura S, Shirahata M, Doi Y, Nakagawa T, Shibai H (2010) Calibration of the AKARI far-infrared imaging Fourier-transform spectrometer. PASJ 62:1155–1166. doi:10.1093/pasj/62.5.1155
Murray SS, Austin GK, Chappell JH, Gomes JJ, Kenter AT, Kraft RP, Meehan GR, Zombeck MV, Fraser GW, Serio S (2000) In-flight performance of the Chandra high-resolution camera. In: Truemper JE, Aschenbach B (eds) X-ray optics, instruments, and missions III, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4012, pp 68–80
Naylor DA, Baluteau JP, Bendo GJ, Benielli D, Fulton TR, Gom BG, Griffin MJ, Hopwood R, Imhof P, Lim TL, Lu N, Makiwa G, Marchili N, Orton GS, Papageorgiou A, Pearson C, Polehampton ET, Schulz B, Spencer LD, Swinyard BM, Valtchanov I, van der Wiel MHD, Veenendaal IT, Wu R (2014) In-orbit performance of the Herschel/SPIRE imaging Fourier transform spectrometer: lessons learned. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 9143, p 15. doi:10.1117/12.2054989
Neckel H, Labs D (1984) The solar radiation between 3300 and 12500 A. Sol Phys 90:205–258. doi:10.1007/BF00173953
Neugebauer G, Habing HJ, van Duinen R, Aumann HH, Baud B, Beichman CA, Beintema DA, Boggess N, Clegg PE, de Jong T, Emerson JP, Gautier TN, Gillett FC, Harris S, Hauser MG, Houck JR, Jennings RE, Low FJ, Marsden PL, Miley G, Olnon FM, Pottasch SR, Raimond E, Rowan-Robinson M, Soifer BT, Walker RG, Wesselius PR, Young E (1984) The infrared astronomical satellite (IRAS) mission. ApJ 278:L1–L6. doi:10.1086/184209
Neupert WM, White WA, Gates WJ, Swartz M, Young RM (1969) X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (1400 Å) spectroscopy of the sun, from OSO-III. Sol Phys 6:183–192. doi:10.1007/BF00150943
Nielbock M, Müller T, Klaas U, Altieri B, Balog Z, Billot N, Linz H, Okumura K, Sánchez-Portal M, Sauvage M (2013) The Herschel PACS photometer calibration. A time dependent flux calibration for the PACS chopped point-source photometry AOT mode. Exp Astron 36:631–660. doi:10.1007/s10686-013-9348-z
Ogawara Y, Takano T, Kato T, Kosugi T, Tsuneta S, Watanabe T, Kondo I, Uchida Y (1991) The SOLAR-A mission—an overview. Sol Phys 136:1–16. doi:10.1007/BF00151692
Oke JB (1990) Faint spectrophotometric standard stars. AJ 99:1621–1631. doi:10.1086/115444
Oke JB, Gunn JE (1983) Secondary standard stars for absolute spectrophotometry. ApJ 266:713–717. doi:10.1086/160817
Oke JB, Schild RE (1970) The absolute spectral energy distribution of Alpha Lyrae. ApJ 161:1015. doi:10.1086/150603
Pajot F, Ade PAR, Beney JL, Bréelle E, Broszkiewicz D, Camus P, Carabétian C, Catalano A, Chardin A, Charra M, Charra J, Cizeron R, Couchot F, Coulais A, Crill BP, Dassas K, Daubin J, de Bernardis P, de Marcillac P, Delouis JM, Désert FX, Duret P, Eng P, Evesque C, Fourmond JJ, François S, Giard M, Giraud-Héraud Y, Guglielmi L, Guyot G, Haissinski J, Henrot-Versillé S, Hervier V, Holmes W, Jones WC, Lamarre JM, Lami P, Lange AE, Lefebvre M, Leriche B, Leroy C, Macias-Perez J, Maciaszek T, Maffei B, Mahendran A, Mansoux B, Marty C, Masi S, Mercier C, Miville-Deschenes MA, Montier L, Nicolas C, Noviello F, Perdereau O, Piacentini F, Piat M, Plaszczynski S, Pointecouteau E, Pons R, Ponthieu N, Puget JL, Rambaud D, Renault C, Renault JC, Rioux C, Ristorcelli I, Rosset C, Savini G, Sudiwala R, Torre JP, Tristram M, Vallée D, Veneziani M, Yvon D (2010) Planck pre-launch status: HFI ground calibration. A&A 520:A10. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913203
Pancino E, Altavilla G, Marinoni S, Cocozza G, Carrasco JM, Bellazzini M, Bragaglia A, Federici L, Rossetti E, Cacciari C, Balaguer Núñez L, Castro A, Figueras F, Fusi Pecci F, Galleti S, Gebran M, Jordi C, Lardo C, Masana E, Monguió M, Montegriffo P, Ragaini S, Schuster W, Trager S, Vilardell F, Voss H (2012) The Gaia spectrophotometric standard stars survey-I. Preliminary results. MNRAS 426:1767–1781. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21766.x
Parmar AN, Martin DDE, Bavdaz M, Favata F, Kuulkers E, Vacanti G, Lammers U, Peacock A, Taylor BG (1997) The low-energy concentrator spectrometer on-board the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 122:309–326. doi:10.1051/aas:1997137
Pauluhn A, Rüedi I, Solanki SK, Lang J, Pike CD, Schühle U, Thompson WT, Hollandt J, Huber MCE (1999) Intercalibration of SUMER and CDS on SOHO. I. SUMER detector A and CDS NIS. Appl Opt 38:7035–7046. doi:10.1364/AO.38.007035
Pauluhn A, Rüedi I, Solanki SK, Schühle U, Wilhelm K, Lang J, Thompson WT, Hollandt J (2001) Intercalibration of SUMER and CDS on SOHO. II. SUMER detectors A and B and CDS NIS. Appl Opt 40:6292–6300. doi:10.1364/AO.40.006292
Pauluhn A, Huber MCE, von Steiger R (2002) The radiometric calibration of SOHO. In: ISSI scientific reports series 2
Pauluhn A, Lang J, Breeveld ER, Solanki SK, Schühle U (2003) Intercalibration of SUMER and CDS on SOHO. III. SUMER and CDS-GIS. Appl Opt 42:657–666. doi:10.1364/AO.42.000657
Penzias AA, Wilson RW (1966) Determination of the microwave spectrum of galactic radiation. ApJ 146:666. doi:10.1086/148944
Pesnell WD, Thompson BJ, Chamberlin PC (2012) The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Sol Phys 275:3–15. doi:10.1007/s11207-011-9841-3
Peterson DM, Hummel CA, Pauls TA, Armstrong JT, Benson JA, Gilbreath GC, Hindsley RB, Hutter DJ, Johnston KJ, Mozurkewich D, Schmitt HR (2006) Vega is a rapidly rotating star. Nature 440:896–899. doi:10.1038/nature04661
Pilbratt GL (2008) Herschel mission overview and key programmes. In: Society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 7010, p 12. doi:10.1117/12.789431
Planck Collaboration, Adam R, Ade PAR, Aghanim N, Arnaud M, Ashdown M, Aumont J, Baccigalupi C, Banday AJ, Barreiro RB et al (2015a) Planck 2015 results. VIII. High frequency instrument data processing: calibration and maps, p 26. ArXiv e-prints
Planck Collaboration, Ade PAR, Aghanim N, Ashdown M, Aumont J, Baccigalupi C, Banday AJ, Barreiro RB, Bartolo N, Battaglia P et al (2015b) Planck 2015 results. V. LFI calibration, p 22. ArXiv e-prints
Poglitsch A, Waelkens C, Geis N, Feuchtgruber H, Vandenbussche B, Rodriguez L, Krause O, Renotte E, van Hoof C, Saraceno P, Cepa J, Kerschbaum F, Agnèse P, Ali B, Altieri B, Andreani P, Augueres JL, Balog Z, Barl L, Bauer OH, Belbachir N, Benedettini M, Billot N, Boulade O, Bischof H, Blommaert J, Callut E, Cara C, Cerulli R, Cesarsky D, Contursi A, Creten Y, De Meester W, Doublier V, Doumayrou E, Duband L, Exter K, Genzel R, Gillis JM, Grözinger U, Henning T, Herreros J, Huygen R, Inguscio M, Jakob G, Jamar C, Jean C, de Jong J, Katterloher R, Kiss C, Klaas U, Lemke D, Lutz D, Madden S, Marquet B, Martignac J, Mazy A, Merken P, Montfort F, Morbidelli L, Müller T, Nielbock M, Okumura K, Orfei R, Ottensamer R, Pezzuto S, Popesso P, Putzeys J, Regibo S, Reveret V, Royer P, Sauvage M, Schreiber J, Stegmaier J, Schmitt D, Schubert J, Sturm E, Thiel M, Tofani G, Vavrek R, Wetzstein M, Wieprecht E, Wiezorrek E (2010) The photodetector array camera and spectrometer (PACS) on the Herschel space observatory. A&A 518:L2. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014535
Price SD, Paxson C, Engelke C, Murdock TL (2004) Spectral irradiance calibration in the infrared. XV. Absolute calibration of standard stars by experiments on the midcourse space experiment. AJ 128:889–910. doi:10.1086/422024
Quinn TJ (1997) Primary methods of measurement and primary standards. Metrologia 34:61–65. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/34/1/9
Quinn TJ, Martin JE (1991a) Cryogenic radiometry, prospects for further improvements in accuracy. Metrologia 28(28):155–161
Quinn TJ, Martin JE (1991b) Cryogenic radiometry: the problem of hydrogen condensation in detectors operated at temperatures below 4 K. Appl Opt 30(16):2065–2067. doi:10.1364/AO.30.002065. http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-30-16-2065
Reber CA, Trevathan CE, McNeal RJ, Luther MR (1993) The upper atmosphere research satellite (UARS) mission. J Geophys Res 98:10,643–10,647. doi:10.1029/92JD02828
Reeves EM, Parkinson WH (1970) Calibration changes in EUV solar satellite instruments. Appl Opt 9:1201–1208. doi:10.1364/AO.9.001201
Reeves EM, Timothy JG, Huber MCE (1977a) Extreme UV spectroheliometer on the Apollo telescope mount. Appl Opt 16:837–848
Reeves EM, Timothy JG, Withbroe GL, Huber MCE (1977b) Photometric calibration of the EUV spectroheliometer on ATM. Appl Opt 16:849–857
Rieke GH, Blaylock M, Decin L, Engelbracht C, Ogle P, Avrett E, Carpenter J, Cutri RM, Armus L, Gordon K, Gray RO, Hinz J, Su K, Willmer CNA (2008) Absolute physical calibration in the infrared. AJ 135:2245–2263. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/6/2245
Rosa MR (1997) Physical modeling of scientific instruments. In: Hunt G, Payne H (eds) Astronomical data analysis software and systems VI, astronomical society of the pacific conference series, vol 125, p 411
Rothschild RE, Blanco PR, Gruber DE, Heindl WA, MacDonald DR, Marsden DC, Pelling MR, Wayne LR, Hink PL (1998) In-flight performance of the high-energy X-ray timing experiment on the Rossi x-ray Timing Explorer. ApJ 496:538–549. doi:10.1086/305377
Rottman G, Mount G, Lawrence G, Woods T, Harder J, Tournois S (1998) Solar spectral irradiance measuremetns: visible to near-infrared regions. Metrologia 35:707–712. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/35/4/82
Rottman GJ, Woods TN (1994) Upper atmosphere research satellite (UARS) solar stellar irradiance comparison experiment (SOLSTICE). In: Wang J, Hays PB (eds) Optical spectroscopic techniques and instrumentation for atmospheric and space research, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 2266, pp 317–327
Sahnow DJ, Moos HW, Ake TB, Andersson BG, Andre M, Artis D, Berman AF, Blair WP, Brownsberger KR, Calvani HM, Chayer P, Conard SJ, Feldman PD, Friedman SD, Fullerton AW, Gaines GA, Green JC, Gummin MA, Joyce JB, Kaiser ME, Kruk JW, Lindler DJ, Massa D, Murphy EM, Oegerle WR, Ohl RG, Osterman SN, Roberts BA, Roth KC, Sankrit R, Sembach KR, Shelton RL, Siegmund OH, Weaver HA, Wilkinson E (2000a) On-orbit performance of the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE). In: Breckinridge JB, Jakobsen P (eds) UV, optical, and IR space telescopes and instruments, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4013, pp 334–343
Sahnow DJ, Moos HW, Friedman SD, Blair WP, Conard SJ, Kruk JW, Murphy EM, Oegerle WR, Ake TB (2000b) Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer: one year in orbit. In: Fineschi S, Korendyke CM, Siegmund OH, Woodgate BE (eds) Instrumentation for UV/EUV astronomy and solar missions, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4139, pp 131–136
Saloman EB (1978) Typical photoefficiency between 20–250 eV of windowless XUV photodiodes with tungsten and anodized aluminum oxide photocathodes. Appl Opt 17:1489–1490. doi:10.1364/AO.17.001489
Samson JA, Ederer DL (2000) Vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy. Academic Press, London
Samson JAR (1964) Photoionization cross sections of xenon from the \(2\text{ p }\frac{1}{2}\) edge to 280 Å. J Opt Soc Am 54(6):842–842. doi:10.1364/JOSA.54.000842. http://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-54-6-842
Samson JAR, Haddad GN (1974) Absolute photon-flux measurements in the vacuum ultraviolet. J Opt Soc Am 64(1):47–54. doi:10.1364/JOSA.64.000047. http://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?URI=josa-64-1-47
Santangelo AE, Piraino S, Segreto A, Fazio G, Giarrusso S (1997) In-orbit performance and calibration of the High-Pressure Gas Scintillation Proportional Counter on board the BeppoSAX satellite. In: Siegmund OH, Gummin MA (eds) EUV, X-ray, and gamma-ray instrumentation for astronomy viii, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3114, pp 216–227
Schläppi B, Altwegg K, Balsiger H, Hässig M, Jäckel A, Wurz P, Fiethe B, Rubin M, Fuselier SA, Berthelier JJ, de Keyser J, RèMe H, Mall U (2010) Influence of spacecraft outgassing on the exploration of tenuous atmospheres with in situ mass spectrometry. J Geophys Res (Space Phys) 115(A14):A12313. doi:10.1029/2010JA015734
Schmidtke G (2015) Extreme ultraviolet spectral irradiance measurements since 1946. Hist Geo Space Sci 6:3–22. doi:10.5194/hgss-6-3-2015
Schmidtke G, Brunner R, Eberhard D, Halford B, Klocke U, Knothe M, Konz W, Riedel WJ, Wolf H (2006) SOL ACES: auto-calibrating EUV/UV spectrometers for measurements onboard the International Space Station. Adv Space Res 37:273–282. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.01.112
Schmidtke G, Nikutowski B, Jacobi C, Brunner R, Erhardt C, Knecht S, Scherle J, Schlagenhauf J (2014) Solar EUV irradiance measurements by the auto-calibrating EUV spectrometers (SolACES) aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Sol Phys 289:1863–1883. doi:10.1007/s11207-013-0430-5
Schönfelder V, Kanbach G (2013) Imaging through Compton scattering and pair creation. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 225–242
Schou J, Scherrer PH, Bush RI, Wachter R, Couvidat S, Rabello-Soares MC, Bogart RS, Hoeksema JT, Liu Y, Duvall TL, Akin DJ, Allard BA, Miles JW, Rairden R, Shine RA, Tarbell TD, Title AM, Wolfson CJ, Elmore DF, Norton AA, Tomczyk S (2012) ground calibration of the helioseismic and magnetic imager (HMI) instrument on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Sol Phys 275:229–259. doi:10.1007/s11207-011-9842-2
Schühle U, Curdt W, Hollandt J, Feldman U, Lemaire P, Wilhelm K (2000) calibration of the vacuum-ultraviolet spectrograph SUMER on the SOHO spacecraft with the B detector. Appl Opt 39:418–425. doi:10.1364/AO.39.000418
Schwartz DA, David LP, Donnelly RH, Edgar RJ, Gaetz TJ, Graessle DE, Jerius D, Juda M, Kellogg EM, McNamara BR, Plucinsky PP, Van Speybroeck LP, Wargelin BJ, Wolk S, Zhao P, Dewey D, Marshall HL, Schulz NS, Elsner RF, Kolodziejczak JJ, O’Dell SL, Swartz DA, Tennant AF, Weisskopf MC (2000) Absolute effective area of the Chandra high-resolution mirror assembly (HRMA). In: Truemper JE, Aschenbach B (eds) X-ray optics, instruments, and missions iii, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4012, pp 28–40
Schwinger J (1949) On the classical radiation of accelerated electrons. Phys Rev 75:1912–1925. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1912. http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.75.1912
Seely JF, Brown CM, Windt DL, Donguy S, Kjornrattanawanich B (2004) Normal-incidence efficiencies of multilayer-coated laminar gratings for the extreme-ultraviolet imaging spectrometer on the Solar-B mission. Appl Opt 43:1463–1471. doi:10.1364/AO.43.001463
Selby MJ, Mountain CM, Blackwell DE, Petford AD, Leggett SK (1983) Measurement of the absolute monochromatic flux from VEGA at 2.20 and 3.80 microns by comparison with a furnace. MNRAS 203:795–800
Sembach K (2015) Towards a 2020 vision for the Hubble Space Telescope. Tech. rep., STScI, Newsletter 32/01:1–3
Sembay S, Guainazzi M, Plucinsky P, Nevalainen J (2010) Defining high-energy calibration standards: IACHEC (International Astronomical Consortium for High-Energy Calibration). In: X-ray astronomy 2009; present Status. Multi-wavelength approach and future perspectives, vol 1248, pp 593–594. doi:10.1063/1.3475350
Sing D, Holberg JB, Dupuis J (2002) A comparison of EUVE fluxes with absolute stellar calibration at longer wavelengths. In: Howell SB, Dupuis J, Golombek D, Walter FM, Cullison J (eds) Continuing the challenge of EUV astronomy: current analysis and prospects for the future, astronomical society of the pacific conference series, vol 264, p 57
Sirk MM, Vallerga JV, Finley DS, Jelinsky P, Malina RF (1997) Performance of the extreme ultraviolet explorer imaging telescopes. ApJS 110:347–356. doi:10.1086/313002
Smith AW, Woodward JT, Jenkins CA, Brown SW, Lykke KR (2009) Absolute flux calibration of stars: calibration of the reference telescope. Metrologia 46:219–223. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/46/4/S16
Smith DM, Lin RP, Turin P, Curtis DW, Primbsch JH, Campbell RD, Abiad R, Schroeder P, Cork CP, Hull EL, Landis DA, Madden NW, Malone D, Pehl RH, Raudorf T, Sangsingkeow P, Boyle R, Banks IS, Shirey K, Schwartz R (2002) The RHESSI spectrometer. Sol Phys 210:33–60. doi:10.1023/A:1022400716414
Smith PL, Huber MCE, Parkinson WH, Kuhne M, Kock M (1991) In-orbit extreme ultraviolet radiometric calibration of satellite instrumentation. In: Malina RF, Bowyer S (eds) Extreme ultraviolet astronomy, p 390
Snow M, Reberac A, Quémerais E, Clarke J, McClintock WE, Woods TN (2013) A new catalog of ultraviolet stellar spectra for calibration. In: Quémerais, E, Snow M, Bonnet R-M (eds) Springer, New York, pp 191–226. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6384-9_7
Stock M, Fischer J, Friedrich R, Jung HJ, Thornagel R, Ulm G, Wende B (1993) Present state of the comparison between radiometric scales based on three primary standards. Metrologia 30:439–449. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/30/4/041
Strongylis GJ, Bohlin RC (1979) Absolute calibration in the 1750 A–3350 A region. PASP 91:205–213. doi:10.1086/130472
Strüder L, Briel U, Dennerl K, Hartmann R, Kendziorra E, Meidinger N, Pfeffermann E, Reppin C, Aschenbach B, Bornemann W, Bräuninger H, Burkert W, Elender M, Freyberg M, Haberl F, Hartner G, Heuschmann F, Hippmann H, Kastelic E, Kemmer S, Kettenring G, Kink W, Krause N, Müller S, Oppitz A, Pietsch W, Popp M, Predehl P, Read A, Stephan KH, Stötter D, Trümper J, Holl P, Kemmer J, Soltau H, Stötter R, Weber U, Weichert U, von Zanthier C, Carathanassis D, Lutz G, Richter RH, Solc P, Böttcher H, Kuster M, Staubert R, Abbey A, Holland A, Turner M, Balasini M, Bignami GF, La Palombara N, Villa G, Buttler W, Gianini F, Lainé R, Lumb D, Dhez P (2001) The European photon imaging camera on XMM-Newton: the pn-CCD camera. A&A 365:L18–L26. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000066
Sullivan M, Guy J, Conley A, Regnault N, Astier P, Balland C, Basa S, Carlberg RG, Fouchez D, Hardin D, Hook IM, Howell DA, Pain R, Palanque-Delabrouille N, Perrett KM, Pritchet CJ, Rich J, Ruhlmann-Kleider V, Balam D, Baumont S, Ellis RS, Fabbro S, Fakhouri HK, Fourmanoit N, González-Gaitán S, Graham ML, Hudson MJ, Hsiao E, Kronborg T, Lidman C, Mourao AM, Neill JD, Perlmutter S, Ripoche P, Suzuki N, Walker ES (2011) SNLS3: constraints on dark energy combining the supernova legacy survey three-year data with other probes. ApJ 737:102. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/737/2/102
Swinyard B, Wild W (2013) Far-infrared imaging and spectroscopic instrumentation. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 261–282
Swinyard BM, Polehampton ET, Hopwood R, Valtchanov I, Lu N, Fulton T, Benielli D, Imhof P, Marchili N, Baluteau JP, Bendo GJ, Ferlet M, Griffin MJ, Lim TL, Makiwa G, Naylor DA, Orton GS, Papageorgiou A, Pearson CP, Schulz B, Sidher SD, Spencer LD, van der Wiel MHD, Wu R (2014) Calibration of the Herschel SPIRE Fourier transform spectrometer. MNRAS 440:3658–3674. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu409
Takita S, Ikeda N, Kitamura Y, Ishihara D, Kataza H, Kawamura A, Oyabu S, Ueno M, Yamamura I (2012) Slow-scan observations with the infrared camera (IRC) aboard AKARI. PASJ 64:126. doi:10.1093/pasj/64.6.126
Taubert RD, Monte C, Baltruschat C, Schirmacher A, Gutschwager B, Hartmann J, Hollandt J, Kochems D, Küchel C, te Plate M (2009) The spectral photon flux of the radiometric calibration spectral source for the NIRSpec instrument of the James Webb Space Telescope. Metrologia 46:207. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/46/4/S14
Taylor BG, Andresen RD, Peacock A, Zobl R (1981) The EXOSAT mission. Space Sci Rev 30:479–494. doi:10.1007/BF01246069
Thekaekara MP (1974) Extraterrestrial solar spectrum, 3000–6100 Å at 1-Å intervals. Appl Opt 13:518–522. doi:10.1364/AO.13.000518
Thernisien AF, Morrill JS, Howard RA, Wang D (2006) Photometric calibration of the Lasco-C3 coronagraph using stars. Sol Phys 233:155–169. doi:10.1007/s11207-006-2047-4
Thomas R (2002) 20:20 vision and SOHO cleanliness. ISSI Sci Rep Ser 2:91–104
Thompson WT, Reginald NL (2008) The radiometric and pointing calibration of SECCHI COR1 on STEREO. Sol Phys 250:443–454. doi:10.1007/s11207-008-9228-2
Thompson WT, McMullin DR, Newmark JS (2002) Comparison of CDS irradiance measurements with SEM and EIT. ISSI Sci Rep Ser 2:211–223
Thornagel R, Fischer J, Friedrich R, Stock M, Ulm G, Wende B (1996) The electron storage ring BESSY as a primary standard source—a radiometric comparison with a cryogenic electrical substitution radiometer in the visible. Metrologia 32:459
Thuillier G, Floyd L, Woods TN, Cebula R, Hilsenrath E, Hersé M, Labs D (2004a) Solar irradiance reference spectra. In: Pap JM, Fox P, Frohlich C, Hudson HS, Kuhn J, McCormack J, North G, Sprigg W, Wu ST (eds) Solar variability and its effects on climate. Geophysical monograph series, vol 141. American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, pp 171–194
Thuillier G, Floyd L, Woods TN, Cebula R, Hilsenrath E, Hersé M, Labs D (2004b) Solar irradiance reference spectra for two solar active levels. Adv Space Res 34:256–261. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2002.12.004
Thuillier G, Foujols T, Bolsée D, Gillotay D, Hersé M, Peetermans W, Decuyper W, Mandel H, Sperfeld P, Pape S, Taubert DR, Hartmann J (2009) SOLAR/SOLSPEC: scientific objectives, instrument performance and its absolute calibration using a blackbody as primary standard source. Sol Phys 257:185–213. doi:10.1007/s11207-009-9361-6
Timothy JG, Chambers RM, d’Entremont AM, Lanham NW, Reeves EM (1975) A sounding rocket spectroheliometer for photometric studies at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths. Space Sci Instrum 1:23–49
Tüg H, White NM, Lockwood GW (1977) Absolute energy distributions of Alpha Lyrae and 109 Virginis from 3295 A to 9040 A. A&A 61:679–684
Turner MJL, Abbey A, Arnaud M, Balasini M, Barbera M, Belsole E, Bennie PJ, Bernard JP, Bignami GF, Boer M, Briel U, Butler I, Cara C, Chabaud C, Cole R, Collura A, Conte M, Cros A, Denby M, Dhez P, Di Coco G, Dowson J, Ferrando P, Ghizzardi S, Gianotti F, Goodall CV, Gretton L, Griffiths RG, Hainaut O, Hochedez JF, Holland AD, Jourdain E, Kendziorra E, Lagostina A, Laine R, La Palombara N, Lortholary M, Lumb D, Marty P, Molendi S, Pigot C, Poindron E, Pounds KA, Reeves JN, Reppin C, Rothenflug R, Salvetat P, Sauvageot JL, Schmitt D, Sembay S, Short ADT, Spragg J, Stephen J, Strüder L, Tiengo A, Trifoglio M, Trümper J, Vercellone S, Vigroux L, Villa G, Ward MJ, Whitehead S, Zonca E (2001) The European photon imaging camera on XMM-Newton: the MOS cameras. A&A 365:L27–L35. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000087
VanHoosier ME, Bartoe JDF, Brueckner GE, Prinz DK (1988) Absolute solar spectral irradiance 120 nm–400 nm (results from the solar ultraviolet spectral irradiance monitor-SUSIM-experiment on board spacelab 2). Astrophys Lett Commun 27:163–168
von der Linden W, Dose V, von Toussaint U (2014) Bayesian probability theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Wang T, Thomas RJ, Brosius JW, Young PR, Rabin DM, Davila JM, Del Zanna G (2011) Underflight calibration of SOHO/CDS and Hinode/EIS with EUNIS-07. ApJS 197:32. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/32
Waters WR, Walker JH, Hattenburg AT (1988) The NBS scale of radiance temperature. Tech. rep, NBS/NIST
Weisskopf MC, Tananbaum HD, Van Speybroeck LP, O’Dell SL (2000) Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO): overview. In: Truemper JE, Aschenbach B (eds) X-ray optics, instruments, and missions III, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 4012, pp 2–16
Weisskopf MC, Brinkman B, Canizares C, Garmire G, Murray S, Van Speybroeck LP (2002) An overview of the performance and scientific results from the Chandra X-ray observatory. PASP 114:1–24. doi:10.1086/338108
Wild W (2013) Coherent far-infrared/submillimetre detectors. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 543–564
Wilhelm K (2006) Solar VUV measurements obtained by SOHO instruments and their radiometric calibration. Adv Space Res 37:225–233. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2004.12.057
Wilhelm K (2010) Quantitative solar spectroscopy. Astron Nachr 331:502–511. doi:10.1002/asna.200911360
Wilhelm K, Fröhlich C (2013) Photons—from source to detector. In: Huber M, Pauluhn A, Culhane J, Timothy J, Wilhelm K, Zehnder A (eds) Observing photons in space. Springer, London, pp 21–53
Wilhelm K, Curdt W, Marsch E, Schühle U, Lemaire P, Gabriel A, Vial JC, Grewing M, Huber MCE, Jordan SD, Poland AI, Thomas RJ, Kühne M, Timothy JG, Hassler DM, Siegmund OHW (1995) SUMER—solar ultraviolet measurements of emitted radiation. Sol Phys 162:189–231. doi:10.1007/BF00733430
Wilhelm K, Lemaire P, Feldman U, Hollandt J, Schühle U, Curdt W (1997) Radiometric calibration of SUMER: refinement of the laboratory results under operational conditions on SOHO. Appl Opt 36:6416–6422. doi:10.1364/AO.36.006416
Wilhelm K, Schühle U, Curdt W, Dammasch IE, Hollandt J, Lemaire P, Huber MCE (2002) Solar vacuum-ultraviolet radiometry with SUMER. In: Pauluhn A, Huber M, von Steiger R (eds) The radiometric calibration of SOHO, vol 2. ESA, Noordwijk, pp 145–160 (ISSI Scientific Report SR-002)
Willson RC (1999) Solar irradiance variations. In: Strong KT, Saba JLR, Haisch BM, Schmelz JT (eds) The many faces of the sun: a summary of the results from NASA’s Solar Maximum Mission, p 19
Willson RC (2014) ACRIM3 and the total solar irradiance database. Ap&SS 352:341–352. doi:10.1007/s10509-014-1961-4
Woods TN, Rottman G (2005) XUV photometer system (XPS): solar variations during the SORCE mission. Sol Phys 230:375–387. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-2555-7
Woods TN, Rottman GJ, Ucker GJ (1993) Solar-stellar irradiance comparison experiment 1. II—instrument calibrations. J Geophys Res 98:10,679–10,694. doi:10.1029/93JD00463
Woods TN, Prinz DK, Rottman GJ, London J, Crane PC, Cebula RP, Hilsenrath E, Brueckner GE, Andrews MD, White OR, VanHoosier ME, Floyd LE, Herring LC, Knapp BG, Pankratz CK, Reiser PA (1996) Validation of the UARS solar ultraviolet irradiances: comparison with the ATLAS 1 and 2 measurements. J Geophys Res 101:9541–9570. doi:10.1029/96JD00225
Woods TN, Bailey SM, Eparvier FG, Lawrence GM, Lean J, McClintock WE, Roble RG, Rottman GJ, Solomon SC, Tobiska WK, Ucker GJ, White OR (1998) TIMED solar EUV experiment. In: Korendyke CM (ed) Missions to the Sun II, society of photo-optical instrumentation engineers (SPIE) conference series, vol 3442, pp 180–191
Woods TN, Rottman G, Vest R (2005) XUV photometer system (XPS): overview and calibrations. Sol Phys 230:345–374. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-4119-2
Woods TN, Chamberlin PC, Harder JW, Hock RA, Snow M, Eparvier FG, Fontenla J, McClintock WE, Richard EC (2009) Solar irradiance reference spectra (SIRS) for the 2008 whole heliosphere interval (WHI). Geophys Res Lett 36:L01101. doi:10.1029/2008GL036373
Woods TN, Eparvier FG, Hock R, Jones AR, Woodraska D, Judge D, Didkovsky L, Lean J, Mariska J, Warren H, McMullin D, Chamberlin P, Berthiaume G, Bailey S, Fuller-Rowell T, Sojka J, Tobiska WK, Viereck R (2012) ultraviolet variability experiment (EVE) on the solar dynamics observatory (SDO): overview of science objectives, instrument design, data products, and model developments. Sol Phys 275:115–143. doi:10.1007/s11207-009-9487-6
Yamamura I, Makiuti S, Ikeda N, Fukuda Y, Oyabu S, Koga T, White GJ (2010) VizieR online data catalog: AKARI/FIS All-Sky survey point source catalogues (ISAS/JAXA, 2010). VizieR Online Data Cat 2298:37
Yeo K, Krivova N, Solanki S (2015) Solar cycle variation in solar irradiance. In: Balogh A, Hudson H, Petrovay K, von Steiger R (eds) The solar activity cycle, space sciences series of ISSI, vol 53. Springer, New York, pp 137–167. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2584-1_5
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank K. Bennett, C. T. Bingham, R. C. Bohlin, D. J. Coletti, T. Dudok de Wit, C. Fröhlich, L. D. Gardner, A. Gottwald, U. Grothkopf, J. B. Holberg, J. Hollandt, C. V. H. Huber-Ott, F. Jansen, C. Jones, E. M. Kellogg, R. M. Klein, J. L. Kohl, J. W. Kruk, M. Kühne, X. Liu, R. Paladini, W. H. Parkinson, G. Schmidtke, J. G. Timothy, G. Ulm, K. Wilhelm, C. Winkler and B. J. Wargelin for illuminating discussions, reference material, both published and unpublished, and other assistance. PLS thanks the Space Science Department of ESA for travel support. He was also supported in part by NASA Grants NAGW-1596, and SOHO, and SPARTAN grants.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pauluhn, A., Huber, M.C.E., Smith, P.L. et al. Spectroradiometry with space telescopes. Astron Astrophys Rev 24, 3 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-015-0086-2
Received:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-015-0086-2