Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Temporal and spatial controls on the formation of magmatic PGE and Ni–Cu deposits

  • Article
  • Published:
Mineralium Deposita Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Magmatic PGE and Ni–Cu deposits form in contrasting geologic environments and periods. PGE deposits predominantly occur in large layered intrusions emplaced during the late Archean and early Proterozoic into stabilized, relatively S-poor cratonic lithosphere that provides enhanced preservation potential. The magmas ascend through intracratonic sutures where extension and rifting is limited. Crystallization under conditions of low regional stress, with limited magma-induced sagging due to underlying thick buoyant sub-continental mantle lithosphere, is consistent with their laterally continuous layering. Most of the global resources occur in three large intrusions: Bushveld, Great Dyke and Stillwater. Due to the large size (tens of kilometres) and limited complexity of the deposits, they are relatively easy to locate and delineate. As a result, the search space is relatively mature and few new discoveries have been made in the last few decades. The parental magmas to the intrusions are predominantly derived from the convecting mantle but, in addition, the involvement of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle is suggested by the relative Pt enrichment of most of the major deposits. In contrast to the PGE deposits, Ni–Cu deposits form throughout geologic time, but with the largest deposits being younger than ca. 2 Ga. The sulfide ores are concentrated under highly dynamic conditions within lava channels and magma conduits. The deposits are preferentially located near craton margins towards which mantle plumes have been channelled and where mantle magmas can readily ascend through abundant trans-lithospheric structures. Magma flow is focused and locally enhanced by shifting compressive–extensional tectonic regimes, and abundant S-rich crustal rocks provide an external S source that is required for the majority of deposits. The igneous bodies hosting the deposits tend to be irregular and small, tens to hundreds of metres in width and height, and are difficult to locate. As a result, the search space remains relatively immature. Understanding their tectonic setting helps reduce the prospective search space for world-class examples.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alard O, Griffin WL, Lorand JP, Jackson SE, O’Reilly SY (2000) Non-chondritic distribution of the highly siderophile elements in mantle sulfides. Nature 407:891–894

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt NT, Lesher CM, Barnes SJ (2008) Komatiite, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 467

  • Augé T, Cocherie A, Genna A, Armstrong R, Guerrot C, Mukherjee MM, Patra RN (1993) Age of the Baula PGE mineralization (Orissa, India) and its implications concerning the Singhbhum Archaean nucleus. Precambrian Res 121:85–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes S-J, Melezhik VA, Sokolov SV (2001) The composition and mode of formation of the Pechenga nickel deposits, Kola Peninsula, northwestern Russia. Can Min 39:447–471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes Sarah-Jane, Lightfoot P (2005) Formation of magmatic nickel sulfide ore deposits and processes affecting the Cu and PGE contents. Econ Geol 100th Anniversary volume, pp 179–214

  • Barnes Sarah-Jane, Maier WD, Curl E (2010) Composition of the marginal rocks and sills of the Rustenburg Layered Suite, Bushveld Complex, South Africa: implications for the formation of the platinum-group element deposits. Econ Geol, in press

  • Becker H, Horan MF, Walker RJ, Gao S, Lorand J-P, Rudnick RL (2006) Highly siderophile element composition of the Earth’s primitive mantle: constraints from new data on peridotite massifs and xenoliths. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 70:4528–4550

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begg GC, Griffin WL, Natapov LM, O’Reilly SY, Grand SP, O’Neill CJ, Hronsky JMA (2008) The lithospheric architecture of Africa: seismic tomography, mantle petrology, and tectonic evolution. Geosphere 5:23–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begg GC, Hronsky JMA, Arndt NT, Griffin WL, O’Reilly SY, Hayward N (2010) Lithospheric cratonic and geodynamic setting of Ni–Cu–PGE sulfide deposits. Econ Geol 105:1057–1070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker A, Barley ME, Fiorentini ML, Rouxel OJ, Rumble D, Beresford SW (2009) Atmospheric sulfur in Archean komatiite-hosted nickel deposits. Science 326:1986–1089

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleeker W (2003) The late Archean record: a puzzle in ca 35 pieces. Lithos 71:99–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canfield DE (2004) The evolution of the Earth surface sulfur reservoir. Am J Sci 304:839–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carr HW, Groves DI, Cawthorn RG (1994) The importance of synmagmatic deformation in the formation of Merensky Reef potholes in the Bushveld Complex. Econ Geol 89:1398–1410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy KF, Champion DC, Krapez B, Barley ME, Brown SJA, Blewett RS, Groenewald PB, Tyler LM (2006) A revised geological framework for the Yilgarn craton, Western Australia. Geol Surv West Austr, Record, 2006/8, pp 8

  • Cawthorn RG, Meyer FM (1993) Petrochemistry of the Okiep Cu district basic intrusive bodies, northwestern Cape province, South Africa. Econ Geol 88:590–605

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cawthorn RG, Barnes SJ, Ballhaus C, Malitch KN (2005) Platinum-group element, chromium and vanadium deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks. Econ Geol 100th Anniversary volume, pp 215–250

  • Condie KC (2001) Mantle plumes and their record in Earth history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 306 pp

  • De Wit MJ, Thiart C, Doucour M, Wilsher W (1999) Scent of a supercontinent: Gondwana’s ores as chemical tracers—tin, tungsten and the Neoproterozoic Laurentia–Gondwana connection. J Afr Earth Sci 28:35–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis D, Ludden J (1990) The mantle source for olivine nephelinite, basanite, and alkaline olivine basalt at Fort Selkirk, Yukon, Canada. J Petrol 31:371–400

    Google Scholar 

  • Goff BH, Weinberg R, Groves DI, Vielreicher NM, Fourie PJ (2004) The giant Vergenoeg fluorite deposit in a magnetite–fluorite–fayalite REE pipe: a hydrothermally-altered carbonatite-related pegmatoid? Min Pet 80:173–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldfarb RJ, Bradley D, Leach DL (2010) Secular variation in economic geology. Econ Geol 105:459–465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin WL, O’Reilly SY, Afonso JC, Begg GC (2008) The composition and evolution of lithospheric mantle: a re-evaluation and its tectonic implications. J Petrol 50:1185–1204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groves DI, Vielreicher RM, Goldfarb RJ, Condie KC (2005) Controls on the heterogenous distribution of mineral deposits through time. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 248:71–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groves DI, Bierlein FP, Meinert LD, Hitzman MW (2010) Iron oxide copper–gold (IOCG) deposits through Earth history: implications for origin, lithospheric setting, and distinction from other epigenetic iron oxide deposits. Econ Geol 105:641–654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurney JJ, Helmstaedt HH, Le Roex AP, Nowicki TE, Richardson SH, Westerlund KJ (2005) Diamonds: crustal distribution and formation processes in time and space and an integrated deposit model. Econ Geol 100th Anniversary volume, pp 143–178

  • Hamlyn PR, Keays RR (1986) Sulfur saturation and second stage melts: application to the Bushveld platinum metal deposits. Econ Geol 81:1431–1445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanski EJ, Huhma H, Suominen IM, Walker RJ (1997) Geochemical and isotopic (Os, Nd) study of early Proterozoic Keivitsa intrusion and its Cu–Ni deposit, northern Finland. In: Papunen H (ed) Mineral deposits. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 435–438

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoatson DM, Jaireth S, Jaques AL (2006) Nickel sulfide deposits in Australia: characteristics, resources, and potential. Ore Geol Rev 29:177–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holwell DA, Boyce AJ, McDonald I (2009) Sulfur isotope variations within the Platreef Ni–Cu–PGE deposit: genetic implications for the origin of sulfide mineralization. Econ Geol 102:1091–1110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hronsky JMA, Groves DI (2008) Science of targeting: definition, strategies, targeting and performance measurements. Austr J Earth Sci 55:3–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivanic TJ, Wingate MTD, Kirkland CL, vanKranendonk MJ, Wyche S (2010) Age and significance of voluminous mafic–ultramafic magmatic events in the Murchison Domain, Yilgarn Craton. Austr J Earth Sci 57:597–614

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jugo PJ, Luth RW, Richards JP (2005) An experimental study of the sulfur content in basaltic melts saturated with immiscible sulfide or sulfate liquids at 1300°C and 1.0 GPa. J Petrol 46:783–798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keays RR, Lightfoot PC, Hamlyn PR (2010) Sulphide saturation history of the Stillwater Complex, Montana: chemostratigraphic variation in platinum group elements. Ext Abstr, 11th Int Platinum Symposium, Sudbury

  • Kerrich R, Goldfarb RJ, Groves DI, Garwin S (2000) The geodynamics of world-class gold deposits: characteristics, space–time distribution, and origins. Rev Econ Geol 13:501–552

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerrich R, Goldfarb RJ, Richards JP (2005) Metallogenic provinces in an evolving geodynamic framework. In: Hedenquist JW, Thompson JFH, Goldfarb RJ, Richards JP (eds) Econ Geology 100th Anniversary volume, pp 1097–1136

  • Lahtinen R, Korja A, Nironen M (2005) Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution 481–532. In: Lehtinen M, Nurmi PA, Rämö OT (eds) Precambrian geology of Finland—key to the evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 736 pp

  • Lambert DD, Shirey SB, Berman SC (1995) Proterozoic lithospheric mantle source for the Prairie Creek lamproites: Re–Os and Sm-–Nd isotopic evidence. Geology 23:273–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehtinen M, Nurmi PA, Rämö OT (2005) Precambrian geology of Finland—key to the evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Developments in Precambrian geology 14. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 736 pp

  • Lesher CM, Barnes SJ (2009) Komatiite-associated Ni–Cu–(PGE) deposits, 27–120. In: Li C, Ripley EM (eds) New developments in magmatic Ni–Cu and PGE deposits. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, p 290

  • Li C, Naldrett AJ (1999) Geology and petrology of the Voisey’s Bay intrusion: reaction of olivine with sulfide and silicate liquids. Lithos 47:1–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li C, Ripley EM (2005) Empirical equations to predict the sulfur content of mafic magmas at sulfide saturation and applications to magmatic sulfide deposits. Miner Deposita 40:218–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li ZX, Bogdanova SV, Collins AS, Davidson A, DeWaele B, Ernst RE, Fitzsimmons ICW, Fuck RA, Gladkochub DP, Jacobs J, Karlstrom KE, Lu S, Natapov LM, Pease V, Pisarevsky SA, Thrane K, Vernikovsky V (2008) Assembly, configuration and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis. Precambrian Res 160:179–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD (2000) Concentrations of platinum-group elements in Cu-sulphide ores at Carolusberg and East Okiep, Namaqualand, South Africa. Miner Deposita 35:422–429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD (2005) Platinum-group element (PGE) deposits and occurrences: mineralization styles, genetic concepts, and exploration criteria. J Afr Earth Sci 41:165–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Eales HV (1997) Correlation within the UG2–Merensky Reef interval of the Western Bushveld Complex, based on geochemical, mineralogical and petrological data. Geol Surv S Afr Bull 120:56

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Barnes S-J (1999) The origin of Cu sulfide deposits in the Curaca Valley, Bahia, Brazil: evidence from Cu, Ni, Se, and PGE concentrations: Economic Geology 94:165–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2004) Pt/Pd and Pd/Ir ratios in mantle-derived magmas: a possible role for mantle metasomatism. S Afr J Geol 107:333–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2008) Platinum-group elements in the UG1 and UG2 chromitites and the Bastard reef at Impala platinum mine, western Bushveld Complex. S Afr J Geol 111:159–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Barnes S-J, Chinyepi G, Setshedi I, Barton J (2008) The petrogenesis of magmatic Ni-Cu- (PGE) deposits in NE Botswana: Compositional data from Phoenix, Selkirk, Tekwane, and intrusions in the Selebi-Phikwe area (Phikwe, Dikoloti, Lentswe, Phokoje). Min Deposita 43:37–60

  • Maier WD, Barnes S-J (2010) The Kabanga Ni sulfide deposits, Tanzania II: Chalcophile and sireophile element geochemistry. Mineralium Deposita 45:443–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Arndt NT, Curl E (2000) Progressive crustal contamination of the Bushveld Complex: evidence from Nd isotopic analyses of the cumulate rocks. Contrib Mineral Petrol 140:316–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Barnes SJ, Campbell IH, Fiorentini ML, Peltonen P, Barnes S-J, Smithies RH (2009) Mantle magmas reveal progressive mixing of meteoritic veneer into the early Earth’s deep mantle. Nature 460:620–623

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier WD, Peltonen P, McDonald I, Barnes SJ, Barnes S-J, Hatton C, Viljoen F (2010) The platinum-group element budget of the Kaapvaal and Karelian sub-continental lithospheric mantle: implications for mantle evolution. Chem Geol, submitted

  • Marsh JS, Bowen MP, Rogers NW, Bowen TB (1992) Petrogenesis of Late Archean flood-type basic lavas from the Klipriviersberg group, Ventersdorp Supergroup, South Africa. J Petrol 33:817–847

    Google Scholar 

  • Mavrogenes JA, HStC O’Neill (1999) The relative effects of pressure, temperature and oxygen fugacity on the solubility of sulfide melts in mafic magmas. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63:1173–1180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy T, Rubidge B (2005) The story of Earth and life: a southern African perspective on a 4.6-billion-year-journey. Struik, Cape Town, 333 pp

  • McInnes BIA, McBride JS, Evans NJ, Lambert DD, Andrew AS (1999) Osmium isotope constraints on metal recycling in subduction zones. Science 286:512–516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mungall JE, Hanley JJ, Arndt NT, Debecdelievre A (2006) Evidence from meimechites and other low-degree mantle melts for redox controls on mantle–crust fractionation of platinum-group elements. PNAS 103:12695–12700

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutanen T (1997) Geology and petrology of the Akanvaara and Koitelainen mafic layered intrusions and Keivitsa–Satovaara layered complex, northern Finland. Geol Surv Finland Bull 395:233

    Google Scholar 

  • Naldrett AJ (1997) Key factors in the genesis of Noril’sk, Sudbury, Jinchuan, Voisey’s Bay and other world-class Ni–Cu–PGE deposits: implications for exploration. Austr J Earth Sci 44:283–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naldrett AJ (2004) Magmatic sulfide deposits. Springer, Heidelberg, 728 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Naldrett AJ (2009) Fundamentals of magmatic sulfide deposits, 1–26. In: Li C, Ripley EM (eds) New developments in magmatic Ni–Cu and PGE deposits. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, p 290

  • Naldrett AJ (2010) Secular variation of magmatic sulfide deposits and their source magmas. Econ Geol 105:669–688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oberthür T (2002) Platinum-group element mineralization of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe. In: Cabri LJ (ed) The geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and mineral beneficiation of platinum-group elements. Can Ins Min Metall Spec Vol 54:483–506

    Google Scholar 

  • Palme H, Jones A (2005) Solar system abundances of the elements, 41–61. In: Davis AM (Ed) Meteorites, comets and planets. Treatise on geochemistry, V1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 737 pp

  • Pearson DG, Irvine GJ, Ionov DA, Boyd FR, Dreibus GE (2004) Re–Os isotope systematics and platinum-group element fractionation during mantle melt extraction: a study of massif and xenolith peridotite suites. Chem Geol 208:29–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prichard HM, Brough C (2009) Potential of ophiolite complexes to host PGE deposits, 277–290. In: Li C, Ripley EM (eds) New developments in magmatic Ni–Cu and PGE deposits. Geological, Beijing, p 290

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson SH, Shirey SB (2008) Continental mantle signature of Bushveld magmas and coeval diamonds. Nature 453:910–913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley EM, Lightfoot PC, Li C, Elswick ER (2003) Sulfur isotopic studies of continental flood basalts in the Noril’sk region: implications for the association between lavas and ore-bearing intrusions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 67:2805–2817

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers JJW, Santosh M (2003) Supercontinents in Earth history. Gondwana Res 6:357–368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Said N, Kerrich R, Groves DI (2010) Geochemical systematics of basalts of the Lower Basalt Unit, 2.7 Ga Kambalda Sequence, Yilgarn craton, Australia: plume impingement at a rifted craton margin. Lithos 115:82–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seat Z, Beresford SW, Grguric BA, Gee MAM, Grassineau NV (2009) Reevaluation of the role of external sulfur addition in the genesis of Ni–Cu–PGE deposits: evidence from the Nebo-Babel Ni–Cu–PGE deposit, West Musgrave, Western Australia. Econ Geol 104:521–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shirey SB, Richardson SH, Harris JW (2004) Age, paragenesis and composition of diamonds and evolution of the Precambrian mantle lithosphere of southern Africa. S Afr J Geol 107:91–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sibson RH, Robert F, Poulsen KH (1988) High-angle reverse faults, fluid pressure cycling, and mesothermal gold-quartz deposits. Geology 16:551–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silver P, Fouch MJ, Gao SS, Schmitz M, Kaapvaal Seismic Group (2004) Seismic anisotropy, mantle fabric, and the magmatic evolution of Precambrian southern Africa. S Afr J Geol 107:45–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song X-Y, Li X-R (2009) Geochemistry of the Kalatongke Ni–Cu–(PGE) sulfide deposit, NW China: implications for the formation of magmatic sulfide mineralization in a postcollisional environment. Miner Deposita 44:303–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor SR, McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its composition and evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, 312 pp

  • Tomkins AG, Rebryna K, Weinberg RF, Schaefer BF (2010) Formation of magmatic sulfide deposits in arcs by reduction of oxidized basalt. Abstr. 11th Int Platinum Symposium, Sudbury

  • Tornos F, Casquet C, Galindo C, Velasco F, Canales A (2001) A new style of Ni–Cu mineralization related to magmatic breccia pipes in a transpressional magmatic arc, Aguablanca, Spain. Miner Deposita 36:700–706

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Geological Survey (2008) Mineral commodity summaries – platinum-group metals. Available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/mcs-2008-plati.pdf

  • Walker RJ, Morgan JW, Horan MF, Czamanske GK, Krogstad EJ, Fedorenko VA, Kunilov VE (1994) Re–Os isotopic evidence for an enriched mantle source for the Noril’sk-type ore-bearing intrusions, Siberia. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58:4179–4197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walraven F, Frick C, Lubala RT (1992) Pb-isotope geochronology of the Schiel complex, Northern Transvaal, South Africa. J Afr Earth Sci 15:103–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The ideas presented in the present paper were developed over a period of many years during which we benefited from discussions with numerous colleagues, particularly Sarah-Jane Barnes, Steve Barnes, Chusi Li, Ed Ripley, Hugh Eales, Sybrand de Waal, Marco Fiorentini, Petri Peltonen, and Thomas Oberthür. The paper further benefited from the thorough reviews of AJ Naldrett and A Yakubchuk.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geosciences, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

    Wolfgang D. Maier

  2. Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Australia

    David I. Groves

Authors
  1. Wolfgang D. Maier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David I. Groves
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wolfgang D. Maier.

Additional information

Editorial handling: B. Lehmann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Maier, W.D., Groves, D.I. Temporal and spatial controls on the formation of magmatic PGE and Ni–Cu deposits. Miner Deposita 46, 841–857 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-011-0339-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-011-0339-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation