Abstract
Termites are among the most important animals in tropical ecosystems where they often make up over 10 % of the total animal biomass and enhance ecosystem productivity. While termites in general have been the focus of a reasonable amount of work, this effort is not equally distributed among taxonomic groups. The soil-feeding Apicotermitinae, in particular, have received less attention than other taxonomic groups. In terms of species diversity and abundance, the Apicotermitinae dominate African and Neotropical rainforests, where they generally feed on soil organic fractions. Whereas basal Apicotermitinae possess soldiers, this caste is missing in a large cluster of species, collectively called the Anoplotermes-group, which possibly constitutes a monophyletic lineage. These soldierless Apicotermitinae evolved alternative defensive strategies, such as defensive body rupture through autothysis or dehiscence. As species identification in termites is commonly based on characters of soldiers, the Anoplotermes-group has long been neglected by taxonomists, but alternative diagnostic characters, derived from the worker gut topology and enteric valve structures, are now routinely used. Although species identification based solely on worker characters is feasible and new molecular techniques greatly facilitate taxonomic studies, the biology of soldierless Apicotermitinae remains poorly known. The main objective of this paper is to increase the awareness and understanding of this dominant soil arthropod through a comprehensive review of their lifestyle and ecological importance.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Acioli ANS, Constantino R (2015) A taxonomic revision of the neotropical termite genus Ruptitermes (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae). Zootaxa 4032:451–492
Ackerman IL, Constantino R, Gauch HG, Lehmann J, Riha SJ, Fernandes ECM (2009) Termite (Insecta: Isoptera) species composition in a primary rain forest and agroforests in Central Amazonia. Biotropica 41:226–233
Ahmad M (1976) The soldierless termite genera of the Oriental Region, with a note on their phylogeny (Isoptera: Termitidae). Pakistan J Zool 8:105–123
Aiman Hanis J, Abu Hassan A, Nurita AT, Che Salmah MR (2014) Community structure of termites in a hill dipterocarp forest of Belum-Temengor forest complex, Malaysia: emergence of pest species. Raffles Bull Zool 62:3–11
Amelung W, Martius C, Bandeira AG, Garcia MVB, Zech W (2002) Lignin characteristics and density fractions of termite nests in an Amazonian rain forest—indicators of termite feeding guilds? Soil Biol Biochem 34:367–372
Atkinson L, Adams ES (1997) The origins and relatedness of multiple reproductives in colonies of the termite Nasutitermes corniger. Proc R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 264:1131–1136
Bandeira AG, Vasconcellos A (2002) A quantitative survey of termites in a gradient of disturbed highland forest in northeastern Brazil (Isoptera). Sociobiology 39:429–439
Bandeira AG, Vasconcellos A, Silva MP, Constantino R (2003) Effects of habitat disturbance on the termite fauna in a highland humid forest in the caatinga domain, Brazil. Sociobiology 42:117–127
Bignell DE, Eggleton P (1995) On the elevated intestinal ph of higher termites (Isoptera: Termitidae). Insectes Soc 42:57–69
Bignell DE, Eggleton P (2000) Termites in ecosystems. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M (eds) Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 363–387
Bignell D, Oskarsson H, Anderson J, Wood T (1983) Structure, microbial associations and function of the so-called “mixed segment” of the gut in two soil-feeding termites, Procubitermes aburiensis and Cubitermes severus (Termitidae, Termitinae). Proc Zool Soc Lond 201:445–480
Bohmann K, Evans A, Gilbert MTP, Carvalho GR, Creer S, Knapp M, Yu DW, de Bruyn M (2014) Environmental DNA for wildlife biology and biodiversity monitoring. Trends Ecol Evol 29:358–367
Bordereau C, Robert A, Van Tuyen V, Peppuy A (1997) Suicidal defensive behaviour by frontal gland dehiscence in Globitermes sulphureus Haviland soldiers (Isoptera). Insectes Soc 44:289–297
Bourguignon T, Leponce M, Roisin Y (2009a) Insights into the termite assemblage of a neotropical rainforest from the spatio-temporal distribution of flying alates. Insect Conserv Divers 2:153–162
Bourguignon T, Šobotník J, Lepoint G, Martin JM, Roisin Y (2009b) Niche differentiation among neotropical soldierless soil-feeding termites revealed by stable isotope ratios. Soil Biol Biochem 41:2038–2043
Bourguignon T, Scheffrahn RH, Křeček J, Nagy ZT, Sonet G, Roisin Y (2010) Towards a revision of the Neotropical soldierless termites (Isoptera: Termitidae): redescription of the genus Anoplotermes and description of Longustitermes, gen. nov. Invertebr Syst 24:357–370
Bourguignon T, Leponce M, Roisin Y (2011a) Beta-diversity of termite assemblages among primary French Guiana rain forests. Biotropica 43:473–479
Bourguignon T, Šobotník J, Lepoint G, Martin JM, Hardy OJ, Dejean A, Roisin Y (2011b) Feeding ecology and phylogenetic structure of a complex neotropical termite assemblage, revealed by nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Ecol Entomol 36:261–269
Bourguignon T, Šobotník J, Hanus R, Krasulová J, Vrkoslav V, Cvačka J, Roisin Y (2013) Delineating species boundaries using an integrative taxonomic approach: the case of soldierless termites (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 69:694–703
Bourguignon T, Lo N, Cameron SL, Šobotník J, Hayashi Y, Shigenobu S, Watanabe D, Roisin Y, Miura T, Evans TA (2015a) The evolutionary history of termites as inferred from 66 mitochondrial genomes. Mol Biol Evol 32:406–421
Bourguignon T, Drouet T, Šobotník J, Hanus R, Roisin Y (2015b) Influence of soil properties on soldierless termite distribution. PLoS ONE 10:e0135341
Bourguignon T, Scheffrahn RH, Nagy ZT, Sonet G, Host B, Roisin Y (2016) Toward a revision of the Neotropical soldierless termites (Isoptera: Termitidae): redescription of the genus Grigiotermes Mathews and description of five new genera. Zool J Linn Soc (in press)
Brune A, Kühl M (1996) pH profiles of the extremely alkaline hindguts of soil-feeding termites (Isoptera: Termitidae) determined with microelectrodes. J Insect Physiol 42:1121–1127
Brune A, Ohkuma M (2011) Diversity, structure, and evolution of the termite gut microbial community. In: Bignell D, Roisin Y, Lo N (eds) Biology of termites: a modern synthesis. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 413–475
Carrijo TF, Scheffrahn RH, Křeček J (2015) Compositermes bani sp.n. (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae), a new species of soldierless termite from Bolivia. Zootaxa 3941:294–298
Chhotani OB (1997) The Fauna of India and adjacent countries: Isoptera (termites), vol II. (family Termitidae). Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, p 800
Coaton WGH (1962) Nesting habits and mounds of the termites of Northern Rhodesia. African Wild Life 16:61–70
Coaton WGH (1971) Five new termite genera from South West Africa (Isoptera: Termitidae). Cimbebasia (A) 2:1–34
Constantino R (1998) Catalog of the living termites of the New World (Insecta: Isoptera). Arquiv Zool 35:135–231
Costa-Leonardo AM (2004) A new interpretation of the defence glands of neotropical Ruptitermes (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae). Sociobiology 44:391–402
Dahlsjö CAL, Parr CL, Malhi Y, Meir P, Eggleton P (2014a) Describing termite assemblage structure in a Peruvian lowland tropical rain forest: a comparison of two alternative methods. Insectes Soc 62:141–150
Dahlsjö CAL, Parr CL, Malhi Y, Rahman H, Meir P, Jones DT, Eggleton P (2014b) First comparison of quantitative estimates of termite biomass and abundance reveals strong intercontinental differences. J Trop Ecol 30:143–152
Davies RG (1997) Termite species richness in fire-prone and fire-protected dry deciduous dipterocarp forest in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, northern Thailand. J Trop Ecol 13:153–160
Davies RG (2002) Feeding group responses of a Neotropical termite assemblage to rain forest fragmentation. Oecologia 133:233–242
Davies RG, Eggleton P, Jones DT, Gathorne-Hardy FJ, Hernandez LM (2003a) Evolution of termite functional diversity: analysis and synthesis of local ecological and regional influences on local species richness. J Biogeogr 30:847–877
Davies RG, Hernández LM, Eggleton P, Didham RK, Fagan LL, Winchester NN (2003b) Environmental and spatial influences upon species composition of a termite assemblage across neotropical forest islands. J Trop Ecol 19:509–524
Deligne J, De Coninck E (2006) Suicidal defence through a dehiscent frontal weapon in Apilitermes longiceps soldiers (Isoptera: Termitidae). Belg J Entomol 8:3–10
Deligne J, Pasteels JM (1969) Morphology, development and affinities of Labidotermes celisi gen. nov., sp. n. (Isoptera, Amitermitinae) from Kivu. Rev Zool Bot Afr 79:145–164
Desneux J (1953) Les constructions hypogées des Apicotermes, termites de l’Afrique tropicale: etude descriptive et essai de phylogénie. Ann Mus Roy Congo Bel 17:9–123
Desneux J (1958) Les nids “jumelés” d’Apicotermes arquieri Gr. et Noir. (Isoptera Termitidae). Rev Zool Bot Afr 58:281–285
Dietrich C, Köhler T, Brune A (2014) The cockroach origin of the termite gut microbiota: patterns in bacterial community structure reflect major evolutionary events. Appl Environ Microbiol 80:2261–2269
Donovan SE (2002) A morphological study of the enteric valves of the Afrotropical Apicotermitinae (Isoptera: Termitidae). J Nat Hist 36:1823–1840
Donovan SE, Jones DT, Sands WA, Eggleton P (2000) Morphological phylogenetics of termites (Isoptera). Biol J Linn Soc 70:467–513
Donovan SE, Eggleton P, Bignell DE (2001a) Gut content analysis and a new feeding group classification of termites. Ecol Entomol 26:356–366
Donovan SE, Eggleton P, Dubbin W (2001b) The effect of a soil-feeding termite, Cubitermes fungifaber (Isoptera: Termitidae) on soil properties: termites may be an important source of soil microhabitat heterogeneity in tropical forests. Pedobiologia 11:1–11
Donovan SE, Eggleton P, Martin A (2002) Species composition of termites of the Nyika plateau forests, northern Malawi, over an altitudinal gradient. Afr J Ecol 40:379–385
Donovan SE, Griffiths GJK, Homathevi R, Winder L (2007) The sampling pattern of soil-dwelling termites in primary and logged forest in Sabah, Malaysia. Ecol Entomol 32:1–10
Dosso K, Konaté S, Aidara D, Linsenmair KE (2010) Termite diversity and abundance across fire-induced habitat variability in a tropical moist savanna (Lamto, Central Côte d’Ivoire). J Trop Ecol 26:323–334
Eggleton P (1999) Termite species description rates and the state of termite taxonomy. Insectes Soc 46:1–5
Eggleton P, Bignell DE, Sands WA, Waite B, Wood TG, Lawton JH (1995) The species richness of termites (Isoptera) under differing levels of forest disturbance in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, southern Cameroon. J Trop Ecol 11:85–98
Eggleton P, Bignell DE, Sands WA, Mawdsley NA, Lawton JH, Wood TG, Bignell NC (1996) The diversity, abundance and biomass of termites under differing levels of disturbance in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, southern Cameroon. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 351:51–68
Eggleton P, Homathevi R, Jones DT, MacDonald JA, Jeeva D, Bignell DE, Davies RG, Maryati M (1999) Termite assemblages, forest disturbance and greenhouse gas fluxes in Sabah, East Malaysia. Phil Trans R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 354:1791–1802
Eggleton P, Bignell DE, Hauser S, Dibog L, Norgrove L, Madong B (2002a) Termite diversity across an anthropogenic disturbance gradient in the humid forest zone of West Africa. Agric Ecosyst Environ 90:189–202
Eggleton P, Davies RG, Connétable S, Bignell DE, Rouland C (2002b) The termites of the Mayombe Forest Reserve, Congo (Brazzaville): transect sampling reveals an extremely high diversity of ground-nesting soil feeders. J Nat Hist 36:1239–1246
Ellwood MDF, Jones DT, Foster WA (2002) Canopy ferns in lowland dipterocarp forest support a prolific abundance of ants, termites, and other invertebrates. Biotropica 34:575–583
Emerson AE (1925) The termites of Kartabo, Bartica District, British Guiana. Zoologica 6:291–459
Fall S, Brauman A, Chotte JL (2001) Comparative distribution of organic matter in particle and aggregate size fractions in the mounds of termites with different feeding habits in Senegal: Cubitermes niokoloensis and Macrotermes bellicosus. Appl Soil Ecol 17:131–140
Ferrar P (1982a) Termites of a South African savanna 2. Densities and populations of smaller mounds, and seasonality of breeding. Oecologia 52:133–138
Ferrar P (1982b) Termites of a South African savanna 1. List of species and subhabitat preferences. Oecologia 52:125–132
Fittkau EJ, Klinge H (1973) On biomass and trophic structure of the Central Amazonian rain forest ecosystem. Biotropica 5:2–14
Fontes LR (1992) Key to the genera of New World Apicotermitinae (Isoptera: Termitidae). In: Quintero D, Aiello A (eds) Insects of Panama and Mesoamerica: Selected Studies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 242–248
Gathorne-Hardy FJ, Syaukani Eggleton P (2001) The effects of altitude and rainfall on the composition of the termites (Isoptera) of the Leuser Ecosystem (Sumatra, Indonesia). J Trop Ecol 17:379–393
Grassé PP (1938) Les faux nids ou pseudoécies, constructions probables des Anoplotermes. Bull Soc Ent Fr 43:195–196
Grassé PP (1981) Polycalic termitaria of Apicotermes lamani and its building: remarks on the building behavior of the Apicotermitinae and its evolution. Ann Sci Nat-Zool Biol Anim 3:147–190
Grassé PP (1984) Termitologia: anatomie, physiologie, biologie, systématique des termites. Tome 2. Fondation des sociétés. Construction. Masson, Paris, p 613
Grassé PP, Noirot C (1948) La biologie et les constructions du termite, Apicotermes arquieri. C R Acad Sci 227:735–736
Grassé PP, Noirot C (1954) Apicotermes arquieri (Isoptère): ses constructions, sa biologie. Considérations générales sur la sousfamille des Apicotermitinae. Ann Sci Nat Zool 16:345–388
Hacker M, Kaib M, Bagine RKN, Epplen JT, Brandl R (2005) Unrelated queens coexist in colonies of the termite Macrotermes michaelseni. Mol Ecol 14:1527–1532
Haverty MI (1977) The proportion of soldiers in termite colonies: a list and a bibliography. Sociobiology 2:199–216
Holmgren N (1912) Termitenstudien. 3. Systematik der Termiten. Die Familie Metatermitidae. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapakad Handl 48:1–166
Holt JA, Lepage M (2000) Termites and soil properties. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M (eds) Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 389–407
Inoue T, Takematsu Y, Yamada A, Hongoh Y, Johjima T, Moriya S, Sornnuwat Y, Vongkaluang C, Ohkuma M, Kudo T (2006) Diversity and abundance of termites along an altitudinal gradient in Khao Kitchagoot National Park, Thailand. J Trop Ecol 22:609–612
Inward DJG, Beccaloni G, Eggleton P (2007a) Death of an order: a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study confirms that termites are eusocial cockroaches. Biol Lett 3:331–335
Inward DJG, Vogler AP, Eggleton P (2007b) A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of termites (Isoptera) illuminates key aspects of their evolutionary biology. Mol Phylogenet Evol 44:953–967
Ji R, Brune A (2001) Transformation and mineralization of 14 C-labelled cellulose, peptidoglycan, and protein by the soil-feeding termite Cubitermes orthognathus. Biol Fert Soils 33:166–174
Ji R, Brune A (2005) Digestion of peptidic residues in humic substances by an alkali-stable and humic-acid-tolerant proteolytic activity in the gut of soil-feeding termites. Soil Biol Biochem 37:1648–1655
Jones DT (2000) Termite assemblages in two distinct montane forest types at 1000 m elevation in the Maliau Basin, Sabah. J Trop Ecol 16:271–286
Jones DT, Brendell MJD (1998) The termite (Insecta: Isoptera) fauna of Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. Raffles Bull Zool 46:79–91
Jones DT, Prasetyo AH (2002) A survey of the termites (Insecta: Isoptera) of Tabalong District, South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Raffles Bull Zool 50:117–128
Jones DT, Susilo F, Bignell DE, Hardiwinoto S, Gillison AN, Eggleton P (2003) Termite assemblage collapse along a land-use intensification gradient in lowland central Sumatra, Indonesia. J Appl Ecol 40:380–391
Josens G, Soki K (2010) Relation between termite numbers and the size of their mounds. Insect Soc 57:303–316
Jouquet P, Lepage M, Velde B (2002) Termite soil preferences and particle selections: strategies related to ecological requirements. Insectes Soc 49:1–7
Jouquet P, Traoré S, Choosai C, Hartmann C, Bignell D (2011) Influence of termites on ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem services provided by termites. Eur J Soil Biol 47:215–222
Kaiser P (1953) Anoplotermes pacificus, eine mit Pflanzenwurzeln vergesellschaftet lebende Termite. Mitt Hamb Zool Mus Inst 52:77–92
Kaiser P (1956) Die Hormonalorgane der Termiten im Zusammenhang mit der Entstehung ihrer Kasten. Mitt Hamb Zool Mus Inst 54:129–178
Kappler A, Brune A (1999) Influence of gut alkalinity and oxygen status on mobilization and size-class distribution of humic acids in the hindgut of soil-feeding termites. Appl Soil Ecol 13:219–229
Krishna K, Grimaldi D (2009) Diverse rhinotermitidae and termitidae (Isoptera) in dominican amber. Am Mus Novitates 3640:1–48
Krishna K, Grimaldi D, Krishna V, Engel M (2013) Treatise on the Isoptera of the World. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 377:1–2704
Lo N, Tokuda G, Watanabe H, Rose H, Slaytor M, Maekawa K, Bandi C, Noda H (2000) Evidence from multiple gene sequences indicates that termites evolved from wood-feeding cockroaches. Curr Biol 10:801–804
Luke SH, Fayle TM, Eggleton P, Turner EC, Davies RG (2014) Functional structure of ant and termite assemblages in old growth forest, logged forest and oil palm plantation in Malaysian Borneo. Biodivers Conserv 23:2817–2832
Martius C (1994) Termite nests as structural elements of the Amazon floodplain forest. Andrias 13:137–150
Martius C, Tabosa WAF, Bandeira AG, Amelung W (1999) Richness of termite genera in a semi-arid region (Sertao) in NE Brazil (Isoptera). Sociobiology 33:357–365
Mathews AGA (1977) Studies on Termites from the Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Academia Brasileira de Ciências, Rio de Janeiro 267 pp
Mill AE (1984) Exploding termites: an unusual defensive behaviour. Entomol Month Mag 120:179–183
Miller LR (1984) Invasitermes, a new genus of soldierless termites from northern Australia (Isoptera: Termitidae). J Aust Entomol Soc 23:33–37
Mujeeb Rahman PM, Varma RV, Sileshi GW (2012) Abundance and diversity of soil invertebrates in annual crops, agroforestry and forest ecosystems in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve of Western Ghats, India. Agrofor Syst 85:165–177
Myles TG (1999) Review of secondary reproduction in termites (Insecta: Isoptera) with comments on its role in termite ecology and social evolution. Sociobiology 33:1–91
Ngugi DK, Brune A (2012) Nitrate reduction, nitrous oxide formation, and anaerobic ammonia oxidation to nitrite in the gut of soil-feeding termites (Cubitermes and Ophiotermes spp.). Environ Microb 14:860–871
Noirot C (1969) Formation of castes in higher termites. In: Krishna K, Weesner FM (eds) Biology of Termites, vol 1. Academic Press, New York, pp 311–350
Noirot C (1985) The caste system in higher termites. In: Watson JAL, Okot-Kotber BM, Noirot C (eds) Caste differentiation in social insects. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp 75–86
Noirot C (2001) The gut of termites (Isoptera): comparative anatomy, systematics, phylogeny. II. Higher termites (Termitidae). Ann Soc Entomol Fr 37:431–471
Noirot C, Kovoor J (1958) Anatomie comparée du tube digestif des termites. Sous-famille des Termitinae. Insectes Soc 5:439–471
Nutting WL (1969) Flight and colony foundation. In: Krishna K, Weesner FM (eds) Biology of Termites, vol 1. Academic Press, New York, pp 233–282
Okwakol MJN (2000) Changes in termite (Isoptera) communities due to the clearance and cultivation of tropical forest in Uganda. Afr J Ecol 38:1–7
Palin OF, Eggleton P, Malhi Y, Girardin CAJ, Rozas-Dávila A, Parr CL (2011) Termite diversity along an Amazon-Andes elevation gradient, Peru. Biotropica 43:100–107
Roisin Y (2000) Diversity and evolution of caste patterns. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M (eds) Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 95–119
Roisin Y, Leponce M (2004) Characterizing termite assemblages in fragmented forests: a test case in the Argentinian Chaco. Austral Ecol 29:637–646
Roisin Y, Dejean A, Corbara B, Orivel J, Samaniego M, Leponce M (2006) Vertical stratification of the termite assemblage in a Neotropical rainforest. Oecologia 149:301–311
Roonwal ML, Chhotani OB (1989) Fauna of India, Isoptera (Termites). Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, p 671
Sands WA (1972) The soldierless termites of Africa (Isoptera: Termitidae). Bull Br Mus (Nat Hist) Entomol 18:1–244
Sands WA (1982) Agonistic behavior of African soldierless Apicotermitinae (Isoptera: Termitidae). Sociobiology 7:61–72
Sands WA (1998) The identification of worker castes of termite genera from soils of Africa and the Middle East. CAB International, Cambridge 512 pp
Sands WA (1999) A review of the soldierless African termite genus Amicotermes Sands 1972 (Isoptera, Termitidae, Apicotermitinae). Bull Nat Hist Mus Lond (Ent) 68:145–193
Scheffrahn RH (2013) Compositermes vindai (Isoptera: Termitidae: Apicotermitinae), a new genus and species of soldierless termite from the Neotropics. Zootaxa 3652:381–391
Sena JM, Vasconcellos A, Gusmão MAB, Bandeira AG (2003) Assemblage of termites in a fragment of cerrado on the coast of Paraiba State, northeast Brazil (Isoptera). Sociobiology 42:753–760
Sillam-Dussès D, Krasulová J, Vrkoslav V, Pytelková J, Cvačka J, Kutalová K, Bourguignon T, Miura T, Šobotník J (2012) Comparative study of the labial glands secretion in termites (Isoptera). PLoS ONE 7:e46431
Silvestri F (1903) Contribuzione alla conoscenza dei Termitidi e Termitofili dell’America meridionale. Redia 1:1–234
Sleaford F, Bignell DE, Eggleton P (1996) A pilot analysis of gut contents in termites from the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Ecol Entomol 21:279–288
Snyder TE (1926) Termites collected on the Mulford biological exploration to the Amazon Basin, 1921–1922. Proc Nat Mus 68:1–76
Šobotník J, Jirošová A, Hanus R (2010a) Chemical warfare in termites. J Insect Physiol 56:1012–1021
Šobotník J, Bourguignon T, Hanus R, Weyda F, Roisin Y (2010b) Structure and function of defensive glands in soldiers of Glossotermes oculatus (Isoptera: Serritermitidae). Biol J Linn Soc 99:839–848
Šobotník J, Sillam-Dussès D, Weyda F, Dejean A, Roisin Y, Hanus R, Bourguignon T (2010c) The frontal gland in workers of Neotropical soldierless termites. Naturwissenschaften 97:495–503
Šobotník J, Bourguignon T, Hanus R, Demianová Z, Pytelková J, Mareš M, Foltýnová P, Preisler J, Cvačka J, Krasulová J, Roisin Y (2012) Explosive backpacks in old termite workers. Science 337:436
Šobotník J, Kutalová K, Vytisková B, Roisin Y, Bourguignon T (2014) Age-dependent changes in ultrastructure of the defensive glands of Neocapritermes taracua workers (Isoptera, Termitidae). Arthropod Struct Dev 43:205–210
Tho YP (1992) Termites of Peninsular Malaysia. Kepong, Malaysia, Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Malayan Forest Records, vol 36
Thorne BL (1982) Termite-termite interactions: workers as an agonistic caste. Psyche 89:133–150
Vaessen T, Verwer C, Demies M, Kaliang H, van der Meer PJ (2011) Comparison of termite assemblages along land use gradient on peat areas in Sarawak, Malaysia. J Trop Forest Sci 23:196–203
Viana-Junior AB, Reis YT, Costa APM, Souza VB (2014) Termite assemblages in dry tropical forests of Northeastern Brazil: are termites bioindicators of environmental disturbances? Sociobiology 61:324–331
Wood TG (1996) The agricultural importance of termites. Tropic Agric Zool Rev 7:117–155
Acknowledgments
We thank J. Cillis for providing technical assistance with SEM operation. Financial support was provided by the Fund for Scientific Research (F.R.S.–FNRS), Belgium; and by the projects CIGA No. 20154318 and IGA No. B03/15 (Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague). TB was supported by the University of Sydney through a postdoctoral fellowship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bourguignon, T., Šobotník, J., Dahlsjö, C.A.L. et al. The soldierless Apicotermitinae: insights into a poorly known and ecologically dominant tropical taxon. Insect. Soc. 63, 39–50 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-015-0446-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-015-0446-y