Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease

  • Review
  • Published:
Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Replacing saturated with polyunsaturated (PUFAs) rather than monounsaturated fatty acids or carbohydrates results in cardiovascular prevention over a wide range of intakes. The mechanisms by which PUFAs reduce cardiovascular risk are manifold, and the extent and precise nature of their activities is the subject of several investigations, spanning from in vitro mechanistic studies to human intervention trials. This article reviews the most up-to-date evidence of the association between PUFA consumption and reduced cardiovascular mortality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Jakobsen MU, O’Reilly EJ, Heitmann BL, Pereira MA, Balter K, Fraser GE, Goldbourt U, Hallmans G, Knekt P, Liu S, Pietinen P, Spiegelman D, Stevens J, Virtamo J, Willett WC, Ascherio A (2009) Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1283–1284

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Department of Health (1994) Nutritional aspects of cardiovascular disease. HMSO, London

    Google Scholar 

  3. Glatz JF, Lagarde M (2007) Lipid sensing and lipid sensors. Cell Mol Life Sci 64:2449–2451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Calder PC, Burdge GC (2004) Fatty acids. In: Nicolau A, Kokotos G (eds) Bioactive lipids. The Oily Press, Bridgewater, pp 1–36

    Google Scholar 

  5. Simopoulos AP (2009) Omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids: biological effects. World Rev Nutr Diet 99:1–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Brenna JT, Salem N Jr, Sinclair AJ, Cunnane SC (2009) Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 80:85–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Mansilla MC, Banchio CE, de Mendoza D (2008) Signalling pathways controlling fatty acid desaturation. Subcell Biochem 49:71–99

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Wang Y, Botolin D, Xu J, Christian B, Mitchell E, Jayaprakasam B, Nair MG, Peters JM, Busik JV, Olson LK, Jump DB (2006) Regulation of hepatic fatty acid elongase and desaturase expression in diabetes and obesity. J Lipid Res 47:2028–2041

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Das UN (2007) A defect in the activity of Delta6 and Delta5 desaturases may be a factor in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 76:251–268

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Sartore G, Lapolla A, Reitano R, Zambon S, Romanato G, Marin R, Cosma C, Manzato E, Fedele D (2008) Desaturase activities and metabolic control in type 2 diabetes. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79:55–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Rise P, Camera M, Caruso D, Ghezzi S, Visioli F, Galli C (2004) Synthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids is inhibited in vivo in hypercholesterolemic rabbits and in vitro by oxysterols. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 71:79–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Ghezzi S, Rise P, Ceruti S, Galli C (2007) Effects of cigarette smoke on cell viability, linoleic acid metabolism and cholesterol synthesis, in THP-1 cells. Lipids 42:629–636

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Leonard AE, Pereira SL, Sprecher H, Huang YS (2004) Elongation of long-chain fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 43:36–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Dyerberg J, Bang HO (1979) Haemostatic function and platelet polyunsaturated fatty acids in Eskimos. Lancet 2:433–435

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Sinclair AJ, Attar-Bashi NM, Li D (2002) What is the role of alpha-linolenic acid for mammals? Lipids 37:1113–1123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N (1999) Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 99:779–785

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Wendland E, Farmer A, Glasziou P, Neil A (2006) Effect of alpha linolenic acid on cardiovascular risk markers: a systematic review. Heart 92:166–169

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Simon JA, Chen YH, Bent S (2009) The relation of {alpha}-linolenic acid to the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1558S–1564S

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Harris WS (2007) Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a case for omega-3 index as a new risk factor. Pharmacol Res 55:217–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, Barlera S, Franzosi MG, Latini R, Lucci D, Nicolosi GL, Porcu M, Tognoni G (2008) Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 372:1223–1230

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, Matsuzawa Y, Saito Y, Ishikawa Y, Oikawa S, Sasaki J, Hishida H, Itakura H, Kita T, Kitabatake A, Nakaya N, Sakata T, Shimada K, Shirato K (2007) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369:1090–1098

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Hooper L, Thompson RL, Harrison RA, Summerbell CD, Ness AR, Moore HJ, Worthington HV, Durrington PN, Higgins JP, Capps NE, Riemersma RA, Ebrahim SB, Davey SG (2006) Risks and benefits of omega 3 fats for mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review. BMJ 332:752–760

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Galli C, Rise P (2009) Fish consumption, omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. The science and the clinical trials. Nutr Health 20:11–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Mattar M, Obeid O (2009) Fish oil and the management of hypertriglyceridemia. Nutr Health 20:41–49

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Harris WS, Bulchandani D (2006) Why do omega-3 fatty acids lower serum triglycerides? Curr Opin Lipidol 17:387–393

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Hartweg J, Farmer AJ, Holman RR, Neil A (2009) Potential impact of omega-3 treatment on cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Curr Opin Lipidol 20:30–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Kelley DS, Siegel D, Vemuri M, Mackey BE (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 86:324–333

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Superko HR, Gadesam RR (2008) Is it LDL particle size or number that correlates with risk for cardiovascular disease? Curr Atheroscler Rep 10:377–385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Mortensen A, Hansen BF, Hansen JF, Frandsen H, Bartnikowska E, Andersen PS, Bertelsen LS (1998) Comparison of the effects of fish oil and olive oil on blood lipids and aortic atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidaemic rabbits. Br J Nutr 80:565–573

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Thies F, Garry JM, Yaqoob P, Rerkasem K, Williams J, Shearman CP, Gallagher PJ, Calder PC, Grimble RF (2003) Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361:477–485

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Chapkin RS, McMurray DN, Davidson LA, Patil BS, Fan YY, Lupton JR (2008) Bioactive dietary long-chain fatty acids: emerging mechanisms of action. Br J Nutr 100:1152–1157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Serhan CN (2008) Systems approach with inflammatory exudates uncovers novel anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving mediators. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79:157–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Mukherjee PK, Chawla A, Loayza MS, Bazan NG (2007) Docosanoids are multifunctional regulators of neural cell integrity and fate: significance in aging and disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 77:233–238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Schwab JM, Chiang N, Arita M, Serhan CN (2007) Resolvin E1 and protectin D1 activate inflammation–resolution programmes. Nature 447:869–874

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Kasuga K, Yang R, Porter TF, Agrawal N, Petasis NA, Irimia D, Toner M, Serhan CN (2008) Rapid appearance of resolvin precursors in inflammatory exudates: novel mechanisms in resolution. J Immunol 181:8677–8687

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Serhan CN, Chiang N, Van Dyke TE (2008) Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators. Nat Rev Immunol 8:349–361

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Muggli R (2003) n-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E in cardiovascular disease prevention: epiphenomenon or causal dependency? In: Huang YS, Lin SJ, Huang PC (eds) Essential fatty acids and eicosanoids. Invited Papers from the Fifth International Congress. AOCS Publishing, Urbana, pp 65–70

  38. Lagarde M, Croset M, Vericel E, Calzada C (1989) Effects of small concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid on platelets. J Intern Med Suppl 731:177–179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Richard D, Kefi K, Barbe U, Bausero P, Visioli F (2008) Polyunsaturated fatty acids as antioxidants. Pharmacol Res 57:451–455

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Higdon JV, Liu J, Du SH, Morrow JD, Ames BN, Wander RC (2000) Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is not associated with greater in vivo lipid peroxidation compared with oils rich in oleate and linoleate as assessed by plasma malondialdehyde and F(2)-isoprostanes. Am J Clin Nutr 72:714–722

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Higdon JV, Du SH, Lee YS, Wu T, Wander RC (2001) Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil does not increase overall oxidation of LDL ex vivo compared to dietary oils rich in oleate and linoleate. J Lipid Res 42:407–418

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Mori TA, Beilin LJ (2004) Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation. Curr Atheroscler Rep 6:461–467

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Mori TA (2004) Effect of fish and fish oil-derived omega-3 fatty acids on lipid oxidation. Redox Rep 9:193–197

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Kang JX, Weylandt KH (2008) Modulation of inflammatory cytokines by omega-3 fatty acids. Subcell Biochem 49:133–143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Calder PC (2007) Immunomodulation by omega-3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 77:327–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Calder PC (2008) The relationship between the fatty acid composition of immune cells and their function. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79:101–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Leaf A, Kang JX, Xiao YF (2008) Fish oil fatty acids as cardiovascular drugs. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 6:1–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Massaro M, Habib A, Lubrano L, Del Turco S, Lazzerini G, Bourcier T, Weksler BB, De Caterina R (2006) The omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoate attenuates endothelial cyclooxygenase-2 induction through both NADP(H) oxidase and PKC epsilon inhibition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:15184–15189

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Frangogiannis NG (2008) The immune system and cardiac repair. Pharmacol Res 58:88–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Burleigh ME, Babaev VR, Oates JA, Harris RC, Gautam S, Riendeau D, Marnett LJ, Morrow JD, Fazio S, Linton MF (2002) Cyclooxygenase-2 promotes early atherosclerotic lesion formation in LDL receptor-deficient mice. Circulation 105:1816–1823

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Visioli F, Poli A, Richard D, Paoletti R (2008) Modulation of inflammation by nutritional interventions. Curr Atheroscler Rep 10:451–453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Weaver KL, Ivester P, Seeds MC, Case LD, Arm J, Chilton FH (2009) Effect of dietary fatty acids on inflammatory gene expression in healthy humans. J Biol Chem 284:15400–15407

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Billman GE, Kang JX, Leaf A (1999) Prevention of sudden cardiac death by dietary pure omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Circulation 99:2452–2457

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Brouwer IA, Raitt MH, Dullemeijer C, Kraemer DF, Zock PL, Morris C, Katan MB, Connor WE, Camm JA, Schouten EG, McAnulty J (2009) Effect of fish oil on ventricular tachyarrhythmia in three studies in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. Eur Heart J 30:820–826

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Leon H, Shibata MC, Sivakumaran S, Dorgan M, Chatterley T, Tsuyuki RT (2008) Effect of fish oil on arrhythmias and mortality: systematic review. BMJ 337:a2931

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, Glass TR, Bucher HC (2005) Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med 165:725–730

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Diez S (2009) Human health effects of methylmercury exposure. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 198:111–132

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html

  59. Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB (2006) Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. JAMA 296:1885–1899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Guallar E, Sanz-Gallardo MI, van’t Veer P, Bode P, Aro A, Gomez-Aracena J, Kark JD, Riemersma RA, Martin-Moreno JM, Kok FJ (2002) Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 347:1747–1754

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html

  62. Visioli F, Rise P, Barassi MC, Marangoni F, Galli C (2003) Dietary intake of fish vs. formulations leads to higher plasma concentrations of n-3 fatty acids. Lipids 38(41):5–418

    Google Scholar 

  63. Elvevoll EO, Barstad H, Breimo ES, Brox J, Eilertsen KE, Lund T, Olsen JO, Osterud B (2006) Enhanced incorporation of n-3 fatty acids from fish compared with fish oils. Lipids 41:1109–1114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Harris WS, Pottala JV, Sands SA, Jones PG (2007) Comparison of the effects of fish and fish-oil capsules on the n 3 fatty acid content of blood cells and plasma phospholipids. Am J Clin Nutr 86:1621–1625

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Visioli F, Rise P, Plasmati E, Pazzucconi F, Sirtori CR, Galli C (2000) Very low intakes of N-3 fatty acids incorporated into bovine milk reduce plasma triacylglycerol and increase HDL-cholesterol concentrations in healthy subjects. Pharmacol Res 41:571–576

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/mehgrb.html

  67. Jenkins DJ, Sievenpiper JL, Pauly D, Sumaila UR, Kendall CW, Mowat FM (2009) Are dietary recommendations for the use of fish oils sustainable? CMAJ 180:633–637

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2006) Dietary reference intakes: the essential guide to nutrient requirements. The National Academies Press, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  69. Grundy SM, Ahrens EH Jr (1970) The effects of unsaturated dietary fats on absorption, excretion, synthesis, and distribution of cholesterol in man. J Clin Invest 49:1135–1152

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Willett WC (2007) The role of dietary n-6 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 8(Suppl 1):S42–S45

    Google Scholar 

  71. Hegsted DM (1986) Serum-cholesterol response to dietary cholesterol: a re-evaluation. Am J Clin Nutr 44:299–305

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Mensink RP, Katan MB (1992) Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins. A meta-analysis of 27 trials. Arterioscler Thromb 12(91):1–919

    Google Scholar 

  73. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB (2003) Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 77:1146–1155

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Adam O, Tesche A, Wolfram G (2008) Impact of linoleic acid intake on arachidonic acid formation and eicosanoid biosynthesis in humans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79:177–181

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Whelan J (2008) The health implications of changing linoleic acid intakes. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 79:165–167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Calder PC (2007) Dietary arachidonic acid: harmful, harmless or helpful? Br J Nutr 98:451–453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Moch D, Schewe T, Kuhn H, Schmidt D, Buntrock P (1990) The linoleic acid metabolite 9DS-hydroxy-10, 12(E, Z)-octadecadienoic acid is a strong proinflammatory mediator in an experimental wound healing model of the rat. Biomed Biochim Acta 49:201–207

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Viswanathan S, Hammock BD, Newman JW, Meerarani P, Toborek M, Hennig B (2003) Involvement of CYP 2C9 in mediating the proinflammatory effects of linoleic acid in vascular endothelial cells. J Am Coll Nutr 22:502–510

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Sacks FM, Campos H (2006) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease: time to widen our view of the mechanisms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:398–400

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. De Caterina R, Liao JK, Libby P (2000) Fatty acid modulation of endothelial activation. Am J Clin Nutr 71:213S–223S

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Pischon T, Hankinson SE, Hotamisligil GS, Rifai N, Willett WC, Rimm EB (2003) Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women. Circulation 108:155–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Ferrucci L, Cherubini A, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Corsi A, Lauretani F, Martin A, Andres-Lacueva C, Senin U, Guralnik JM (2006) Relationship of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids to circulating inflammatory markers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:439–446

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Liou YA, King DJ, Zibrik D, Innis SM (2007) Decreasing linoleic acid with constant alpha-linolenic acid in dietary fats increases (n-3) eicosapentaenoic acid in plasma phospholipids in healthy men. J Nutr 137:945–952

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Kelley DS, Taylor PC, Nelson GJ, Mackey BE (1998) Arachidonic acid supplementation enhances synthesis of eicosanoids without suppressing immune functions in young healthy men. Lipids 33:125–130

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Thies F, Miles EA, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Hurst TL, Newsholme EA, Calder PC (2001) Influence of dietary supplementation with long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood inflammatory cell populations and functions and on plasma soluble adhesion molecules in healthy adults. Lipids 36:1183–1193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Summers LK, Fielding BA, Bradshaw HA, Ilic V, Beysen C, Clark ML, Moore NR, Frayn KN (2002) Substituting dietary saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat changes abdominal fat distribution and improves insulin sensitivity. Diabetologia 45:369–377

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Liu S, Solomon CG, Willett WC (2001) Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N Engl J Med 345:790–797

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Riserus U, Willett WC, Hu FB (2009) Dietary fats and prevention of type 2 diabetes. Prog Lipid Res 48:44–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Salmeron J, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Willett WC (2001) Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 73:1019–1026

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kim JK (2006) Fat uses a TOLL-road to connect inflammation and diabetes. Cell Metab 4:417–419

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Mostad IL, Bjerve KS, Bjorgaas MR, Lydersen S, Grill V (2006) Effects of n-3 fatty acids in subjects with type 2 diabetes: reduction of insulin sensitivity and time-dependent alteration from carbohydrate to fat oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr 84:540–550

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Dwyer T, Hetzel BS (1980) A comparison of trends of coronary heart disease mortality in Australia, USA and England and Wales with reference to three major risk factors-hypertension, cigarette smoking and diet. Int J Epidemiol 9:65–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. No authors listed (1968) Controlled trial of soya-bean oil in myocardial infarction. Lancet 2:693–699

    Google Scholar 

  94. Dayton S, Pearce ML, Goldman H, Harnish A, Plotkin D, Shickman M, Winfield M, Zager A, Dixon W (1968) Controlled trial of a diet high in unsaturated fat for prevention of atherosclerotic complications. Lancet 2:1060–1062

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Leren P (1970) The Oslo diet-heart study. Eleven-year report. Circulation 42:935–942

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Turpeinen O, Karvonen MJ, Pekkarinen M, Miettinen M, Elosuo R, Paavilainen E (1979) Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease: the Finnish Mental Hospital Study. Int J Epidemiol 8:99–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm E, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hennekens CH, Willett WC (1997) Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 337:1491–1499

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Ascherio A, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH, Willett WC (1999) Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 70:1001–1008

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, Kris-Etherton P, Rudel LL, Appel LJ, Engler MM, Engler MB, Sacks F (2009) Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 119:902–907

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Simopoulos AP (2006) Evolutionary aspects of diet, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and genetic variation: nutritional implications for chronic diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 60:502–507

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Lands B (2008) A critique of paradoxes in current advice on dietary lipids. Prog Lipid Res 47:77–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Griffin BA (2008) How relevant is the ratio of dietary n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to cardiovascular disease risk? Evidence from the OPTILIP study. Curr Opin Lipidol 19:57–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Griffin MD, Sanders TA, Davies IG, Morgan LM, Millward DJ, Lewis F, Slaughter S, Cooper JA, Miller GJ, Griffin BA (2006) Effects of altering the ratio of dietary n-6 to n-3 fatty acids on insulin sensitivity, lipoprotein size, and postprandial lipemia in men and postmenopausal women aged 45–70 y: the OPTILIP Study. Am J Clin Nutr 84:1290–1298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Hansen SN, Harris WS (2007) New evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of long chain omega-3 fatty acids. Curr Atheroscler Rep 9:434–440

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Stanley JC, Elsom RL, Calder PC, Griffin BA, Harris WS, Jebb SA, Lovegrove JA, Moore CS, Riemersma RA, Sanders TA (2007) UK Food Standards Agency Workshop Report: the effects of the dietary n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio on cardiovascular health. Br J Nutr 98:1305–1310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Kapoor R, Huang YS (2006) Gamma linolenic acid: an antiinflammatory omega-6 fatty acid. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 7:531–534

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Horrobin DF (1992) Nutritional and medical importance of gamma-linolenic acid. Prog Lipid Res 31:163–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Horrobin DF (2000) Essential fatty acid metabolism and its modification in atopic eczema. Am J Clin Nutr 71:367S–372S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Kast RE (2001) Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may be mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int Immunopharmacol 1:2197–2199

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Barabino S, Rolando M, Camicione P, Ravera G, Zanardi S, Giuffrida S, Calabria G (2003) Systemic linoleic and gamma-linolenic acid therapy in dry eye syndrome with an inflammatory component. Cornea 22:97–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Whelan J (2009) Dietary stearidonic acid is a long chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid with potential health benefits. J Nutr 139:5–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. James MJ, Ursin VM, Cleland LG (2003) Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 77:1140–1145

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Harris WS, DiRienzo MA, Sands SA, George C, Jones PG, Eapen AK (2007) Stearidonic acid increases the red blood cell and heart eicosapentaenoic acid content in dogs. Lipids 42:325–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. The International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) (2004) Recommendations for intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids in healthy adults. http://www.issfal.org.uk/pufa-recommendations.html. Accessed 2 June 2009

Download references

Acknowledgment

Work in our laboratory is supported by the Institut de Recherche Pierre Fabre.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Micronutrients and Cardiovascular Disease, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 7, quai St. Bernard, BC 256, 75005, Paris, France

    Doriane Richard, Pedro Bausero, Charlotte Schneider & Francesco Visioli

Authors
  1. Doriane Richard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pedro Bausero
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Charlotte Schneider
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Francesco Visioli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Doriane Richard.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Richard, D., Bausero, P., Schneider, C. et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 66, 3277–3288 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-009-0085-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-009-0085-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation