Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Current Evidence Supporting the Link Between Dietary Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease

  • Review
  • Published:
Lipids

Abstract

Lack of consensus exists pertaining to the scientific evidence regarding effects of various dietary fatty acids on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. The objective of this article is to review current evidence concerning cardiovascular health effects of the main dietary fatty acid types; namely, trans (TFA), saturated (SFA), polyunsaturated (PUFA; n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA), and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). Accumulating evidence shows negative health impacts of TFA and SFA; both may increase CVD risk. Policies have been proposed to reduce TFA and SFA consumption to less than 1 and 7 % of energy intake, respectively. Cardiovascular health might be promoted by replacing SFA and TFA with n-6 PUFA, n-3 PUFA, or MUFA; however, the optimal amount of PUFA or MUFA that can be used to replace SFA and TFA has not been defined yet. Evidence suggests of the potential importance of restricting n-6 PUFA up to 10 % of energy and obtaining an n-6/n-3 ratio as close as possible to unity, along with a particular emphasis on consuming adequate amounts of essential fatty acids. The latest evidence shows cardioprotective effects of MUFA-rich diets, especially when MUFA are supplemented with essential fatty acids; namely, docosahexaenoic acid. MUFA has been newly suggested to be involved in regulating fat oxidation, energy metabolism, appetite sensations, weight maintenance, and cholesterol metabolism. These favorable effects might implicate MUFA as the preferable choice to substitute for other fatty acids, especially given the declaration of its safety for up to 20 % of total energy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

ARA:

Arachidonic acid

ALA:

Alpha-linolenic acid

Apo:

Apo-lipoprotein

CHO:

Carbohydrate

COMIT:

The Canola Oil Multicenter Intervention Trial

CVD:

Cardiovascular disease

DHA:

Docosahexaenoic acid

EPA:

Eicosapentaenoic acid

HbA1c:

Hemoglobin A1c

HDL-C:

High density lipoprotein cholesterol

LNA:

Linoleic acid

LDL-C:

Low density lipoprotein cholesterol

MUFA:

Monounsaturated fatty acid

n-3 PUFA:

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid

n-6 PUFA:

Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid

PUFA:

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

SFA:

Saturated fatty acid

TC:

Total cholesterol

TFA:

Trans fatty acid

VLDL-C:

Very low density lipoprotein cholesterol

TAG:

Triacylglycerol

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  1. Micha R, Mozaffarian D (2009) Trans fatty acids: effects on metabolic syndrome, heart disease and diabetes. Nat Rev Endocrinol 5(6):335–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S, Ammerican Dietetic Assocition, Dietitians of Canada (2007) Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: dietary fatty acids. J Am Diet Assoc 107(9):1599–1611

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Skeaff CM, Miller J (2009) Dietary fat and coronary heart disease: summary of evidence from prospective cohort and randomised controlled trials. Ann Nutr Metab 55(1–3):173–201

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Committee American Heart Association Nutrition, Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J (2006) Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation 114(1):82–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB (2003) Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 77(5):1146–1155

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Gillingham LG, Gustafson JA, Han SY, Jassal DS, Jones PJ (2011) High-oleic rapeseed (canola) and flaxseed oils modulate serum lipids and inflammatory biomarkers in hypercholesterolaemic subjects. Br J Nutr 105(3):417–427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hooper L, Martin N, Abdelhamid A, Davey Smith G (2015) Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6:CD011737

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Gillingham LG, Harris-Janz S, Jones PJ (2011) Dietary monounsaturated fatty acids are protective against metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Lipids 46(3):209–228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Krishnan S, Cooper JA (2014) Effect of dietary fatty acid composition on substrate utilization and body weight maintenance in humans. Eur J Nutr 53(3):691–710

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, Crowe F, Ward HA, Johnson L, Franco OH, Butterworth AS, Forouhi NG, Thompson SG, Khaw KT, Mozaffarian D, Danesh J, Di Angelantonio E (2014) Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 160(6):398–406

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Patterson E, Wall R, Fitzgerald GF, Ross RP, Stanton C (2012) Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated Fatty acids. J Nutr Metab 2012:539426

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM (2010) Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 91(3):535–546

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S (2010) Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic reviewand meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med 7(3):e1000252

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM (2010) Saturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease: modulation by replacement nutrients. Curr Atheroscler Rep 12(6):384–390

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (2006) Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 354(15):1601–1613

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Mauger JF, Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Jalbert SM, Jauhiainen M, Ehnholm C, Lamarche B (2003) Effect of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on LDL particle size. Am J Clin Nutr 78(3):370–375

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Matthan NR, Welty FK, Barrett PH, Harausz C, Dolnikowski GG, Parks JS, Eckel RH, Schaefer EJ, Lichtenstein AH (2004) Dietary hydrogenated fat increases high-density lipoprotein apoA-I catabolism and decreases low-densitylipoprotein apoB-100 catabolism in hypercholesterolemic women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24(6):1092–1097

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Downs SM, Thow AM, Leeder SR (2013) The effectiveness of policies for reducing dietary trans fat: a systematic review of the evidence. Bull World Health Organ 91(4):262H–269H

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Lamarche B, Couture P (2015) Dietary fatty acids, dietary patterns, and lipoprotein metabolism. Curr Opin Lipidol 26(1):42–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Garshick M, Mochari-Greenberger H, Mosca L (2014) Reduction in dietary trans fat intake is associated with decreased LDL particle number in a primary prevention population. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 24(1):100–106

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Sanders TA (2009) Fat and fatty acid intake and metabolic effects in the human body. Ann Nutr Metab 55(1–3):162–172

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Brownell KD, Pomeranz JL (2014) The trans-fat ban—food regulation and long-term health. N Engl J Med 370(19):1773–1775

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Roach C, Feller SE, Ward JA, Shaikh SR, Zerouga M, Stillwell W (2004) Comparison of cis and trans fatty acid containing phosphatidylcholines on membrane properties. Biochemistry 43(20):6344–6351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Vanden Heuvel JP (2004) Diet, fatty acids, and regulation of genes important for heart disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 6(6):432–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Simopoulos AP (2008) The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 233(6):674–688

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Koh-Banerjee P, Chu NF, Spiegelman D, Rosner B, Colditz G, Willett W, Rimm E (2003) Prospective study of the association of changes in dietary intake, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking with 9-y gain in waist circumference among 16 587 US men. Am J Clin Nutr 78(4):719–727

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lopez-Garcia E, Schulze MB, Meigs JB, Manson JE, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB (2005) Consumption of trans fatty acids is related to plasma biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. J Nutr 135(3):562–566

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kennedy A, Martinez K, Chuang CC, LaPoint K, McIntosh M (2009) Saturated fatty acid-mediated inflammation and insulin resistance in adipose tissue: mechanisms of action and implications. J Nutr 139(1):1–4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. USDA and UDHHS (2010) Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the dietary guidelines for Americans. http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-DGACReport.htm. Accessed 15 June 2010

  30. Fattore E, Bosetti C, Brighenti F, Agostoni C, Fattore G (2014) Palm oil and blood lipid-related markers of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of dietary intervention trials. Am J Clin Nutr 99(6):1331–1350

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Jakobsen MU, Overvad K, Dyerberg J, Schroll M, Heitmann BL (2004) Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: possible effect modification by gender and age. Am J Epidemiol 160(2):141–149

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Lee JS, Pinnamaneni SK, Eo SJ, Cho IH, Pyo JH, Kim CK, Sinclair AJ, Febbraio MA, Watt MJ (2006) Saturated, but not n-6 polyunsaturated, fatty acids induce insulin resistance: role of intramuscular accumulation of lipid metabolites. J Appl Physiol 100(5):1467–1474

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Baer DJ, Judd JT, Clevidence BA, Tracy RP (2004) Dietary fatty acids affect plasma markers of inflammation in healthy men fed controlled diets: a randomized crossover study. Am J Clin Nutr 79(6):969–973

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Xu J, Eilat-Adar S, Loria C, Goldbourt U, Howard BV, Fabsitz RR, Zephier EM, Mattil C, Lee ET (2006) Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease: the Strong Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr 84(4):894–902

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Oh K, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (2005) Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the nurses’ health study. Am J Epidemiol 161(7):672–679

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Tucker KL, Hallfrisch J, Qiao N, Muller D, Andres R, Fleg JL, Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (2005) The combination of high fruit and vegetable and low saturated fat intakes is more protective against mortality in aging men than is either alone: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Nutr 135(3):556–561

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB, Herrington DM (2004) Dietary fats, carbohydrate, and progression of coronary atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 80(5):1175–1184

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Vafeiadou K, Weech M, Altowaijri H, Todd S, Yaqoob P, Jackson KG, Lovegrove JA (2015) Replacement of saturated with unsaturated fats had no impact on vascular function but beneficial effects on lipidbiomarkers, E-selectin, and blood pressure: results from the randomized, controlled Dietary Intervention and VAScular function (DIVAS) study. Am J Clin Nutr 102(1):40–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Sacks FM, Katan M (2002) Randomized clinical trials on the effects of dietary fat and carbohydrate on plasma lipoproteins andcardiovascular disease. Am J Med 113(Suppl 9B):13S–24S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lamarche B, Couture P (2014) It is time to revisit current dietary recommendations for saturated fat. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 39(12):1409–1411

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation (2003) Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases (WHO technical report series 916) (PDF). World Health Organization, pp 81–94. ISBN 92-4-120916-X. Retrieved 3 Nov 2011

  42. Russo GL (2009) Dietary n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: from biochemistry to clinical implications in cardiovascular prevention. Biochem Pharmacol 77(6):937–946

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Poudyal H, Brown L (2015) Should the pharmacological actions of dietary fatty acids in cardiometabolic disorders be classified based on biological or chemical function? Prog Lipid Res 59:172–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, Kris-Etherton P, Rudel LL, Appel LJ, Engler MM, Engler MB, Sacks F (2009) Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 119(6):902–907

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kris-Etherton P, Hecker K, Binkoski A (2008) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular health. Nutr Rev 62(11):414–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Pischon T, Hankinson SE, Hotamisligil GS, Rifai N, Willett WC, Rimm EB (2003) Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women. Circulation 108(2):155–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Summers LK, Fielding BA, Bradshaw HA, Ilic V, Beysen C, Clark ML, Moore NR, Frayn KN (2002) Substituting dietary saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat changes abdominal fat distribution and improvesinsulin sensitivity. Diabetologia 45(3):369–377

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Mehra MR, Ventura HO (2009) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases. J Am Coll Cardiol 54(7):585–594

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Chan DC, Watts GF, Mori TA, Barrett PH, Redgrave TG, Beilin LJ (2003) Randomized controlled trial of the effect of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on the metabolism of apolipoprotein B-100 and chylomicron remnants in men with visceral obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 77(2):300–307

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Venturini D, Simão AN, Urbano MR, Dichi I (2015) Effects of extra virgin olive oil and fish oil on lipid profile and oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome. Nutrition 31(6):834–840

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG (2000) Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr 71(1 Suppl):343S–348S

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Johnson GH, Fritsche K (2012) Effect of dietary linoleic acid on markers of inflammation in healthy persons: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Acad Nutr Diet 112(7):1029–1041

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Harris WS (2006) The omega-6/omega-3 ratio and cardiovascular disease risk: uses and abuses. Curr Atheroscler Rep 8(6):453–459

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Schwingshack L, Hoffmann G (2012) Monounsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease: synopsis of the evidence available from systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Nutrients 4(12):1989–2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Potenza MV, Mechanick JI (2009) The metabolic syndrome: definition, global impact, and pathophysiology. Nutr Clin Pract 24(5):560–577

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Bergouignan A, Momken I, Schoeller DA, Simon C, Blanc S (2009) Metabolic fate of saturated and monounsaturated dietary fats: the Mediterranean diet revisited from epidemiological evidence to cellular mechanisms. Prog Lipid Res 48(3–4):128–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Tarrago-Trani MT, Phillips KM, Lemar LE, Holden JM (2006) New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content. J Am Diet Assoc 106(6):867–880

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Ferrara LA, Raimondi AS, d’Episcopo L, Guida L, Dello Russo A, Marotta T (2000) Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications. Arch Intern Med 160(6):837–842

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Pelkman CL, Fishell VK, Maddox DH, Pearson TA, Mauger DT, Kris-Etherton PM (2004) Effects of moderate-fat (from monounsaturated fat) and low-fat weight-loss diets on the serum lipid profile in overweight and obese men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 79(2):204–212

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Kien CL, Bunn JY, Stevens R, Bain J, Ikayeva O, Crain K, Koves TR, Muoio DM (2014) Dietary intake of palmitate and oleate has broad impact on systemic and tissue lipid profiles in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 99(3):436–445

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Shah M, Adams-Huet B, Garg A (2007) Effect of high-carbohydrate or high-cis-monounsaturated fat diets on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of intervention trials. Am J Clin Nutr 85(5):1251–1256

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Muzio F, Mondazzi L, Harris WS, Sommariva D, Branchi A (2007) Effects of moderate variations in the macronutrient content of the diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors in obese patients with the metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 86(4):946–951

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. López S, Bermúdez B, Pacheco YM, Villar J, Abia R, Muriana FJ (2008) Distinctive postprandial modulation of beta cell function and insulin sensitivity by dietary fats: monounsaturated compared with saturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 88(3):638–644

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Schwingshackl L, Strasser B, Hoffmann G (2011) Effects of monounsaturated fatty acids on glycaemic control in patients with abnormal glucose metabolism: asystematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Nutr Metab 58(4):290–296

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Vuksan V, Faulkner D, Augustin LS, Mitchell S, Ireland C, Srichaikul K, Mirrahimi A, Chiavaroli L, Blanco Mejia S, Nishi S, Sahye-Pudaruth S, Patel D, Bashyam B, Vidgen E, de Souza RJ, Sievenpiper JL, Coveney J, Josse RG, Leiter LA (2014) Effect of lowering the glycemic load with canola oil on glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 37(7):1806–1814

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Due A, Larsen TM, Hermansen K, Stender S, Holst JJ, Toubro S, Martinussen T, Astrup A (2008) Comparison of the effects on insulin resistance and glucose tolerance of 6-mo high-monounsaturated-fat, low-fat, and control diets. Am J Clin Nutr 87(4):855–862

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Kien CL, Bunn JY (1999) Gender alters the effects of palmitate and oleate on fat oxidation and energy expenditure. Obesity 16:29–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Nimptsch K, Berg-Beckhoff G, Linseisen J (2010) Effect of dietary fatty acid intake on prospective weight change in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Public Health Nutr 13(10):1636–1646

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Mennella I, Savarese M, Ferracane R, Sacchi R, Vitaglione P (2015) Oleic acid content of a meal promotes oleoylethanolamide response and reduces subsequent energy intake in humans. Food Funct 6(1):204–210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Senanayake VK, Pu S, Jenkins DA, Lamarche B, Kris-Etherton PM, West SG, Fleming JA, Liu X, McCrea CE, Jones PJ (2014) Plasma fatty acid changes following consumption of dietary oils containing n-3, n-6, and n-9 fatty acids at different proportions: preliminary findings of the Canola Oil Multicenter Intervention Trial (COMIT). Trials 15:136–147

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Jones PJ, Senanayake VK, Pu S, Jenkins DJ, Connelly PW, Lamarche B, Couture P, Charest A, Baril-Gravel L, West SG, Liu X, Fleming JA, McCrea CE, Kris-Etherton PM (2014) DHA-enriched high-oleic acid canola oil improves lipid profile and lowers predicted cardiovascular disease risk in the canola oil multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 100(1):88–97

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Pu S, Rodríguez-Pérez C, Ramprasath V, Segura-Carretero A (2015) Dietary high oleic canola oil supplemented with DHA oil attenuates plasma PCSK9 levels in humans. FASEB 29(1 Suppl):743.12S

    Google Scholar 

  73. Jones PJ, MacKay DS, Senanayake VK, Pu S, Jenkins DJ, Connelly PW, Lamarche B, Couture P, Kris-Etherton PM, West SG, Liu X, Fleming JA, Hantgan RR, Rudel LL (2015) High-oleic canola oil consumption enriches LDL particle cholesteryl oleate content and reduces LDL proteoglycan binding in humans. Atherosclerosis 238(2):231–238

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Jones P, Pu S, Rodríguez-Pérez C, Ramprasath V, Khaloufi K, Sabra A, Segura-Carretero A (2015) DHA-enriched high oleic canola oil diet may accelerate the cholesterol synthesis in humans. FASEB 29(1 Suppl):248.4S

    Google Scholar 

  75. Baril-Gravel L, Labonté ME, Couture P, Vohl MC, Charest A, Guay V, Jenkins DA, Connelly PW, West S, Kris-Etherton PM, Jones PJ, Fleming JA, Lamarche B (2015) Docosahexaenoic acid-enriched canola oil increases adiponectin concentrations: a randomized crossover controlled intervention trial. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 25(1):52–59

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Jones PJ, Lin L, Gillingham LG, Yang H, Omar JM (2014) Modulation of plasma N-acylethanolamine levels and physiological parameters by dietary fatty acid composition in humans. J Lipid Res 55(12):2655–2664

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, University of Manitoba, 196 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 6C5, Canada

    Shatha Hammad, Shuaihua Pu & Peter J. Jones

Authors
  1. Shatha Hammad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shuaihua Pu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peter J. Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shatha Hammad.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hammad, S., Pu, S. & Jones, P.J. Current Evidence Supporting the Link Between Dietary Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease. Lipids 51, 507–517 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4113-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4113-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation