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Optimisation of microwave-assisted production of acid condensate from palm kernel shell and its biological activities

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Abstract

This study reports on the microwave-assisted heating optimisation of acid condensate (AC) from palm kernel shell (PKS), using the central composite design (CCD) approach focusing on its total phenolic content (TPC) as response and its antimicrobial activity. Thermogravimetric-derivative thermogravimetric (TG-DTG) analysis clearly depicted the devolatilisation of lignocellulosic content of PKS. The highest TPC in concentrated AC extract (CACE), 451.51 ± 2.37 µg GAE/mg (R2 0.9870), was obtained at microwave power of 580 W, nitrogen flow rate of 2.4 L/min and final temperature of 480 ºC. Nitrogen flow rate had the highest effect on TPC with an F value of 63.65. Relative to ascorbic acid, CACE showed a higher Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) but almost similar 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capabilities which can be attributed to the presence of 1,2-benzendiol, i.e. catechol (27.82%) and 1,3-dimethoxy-2-hydroxybenzene, i.e. syringol (22.76%). CACE also displayed good potential for antimicrobial application with high growth inhibition of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum. In conclusion, PKS has a great potential to be used as raw material to produce AC (acid condensate) using microwave-assisted heating process.

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Funding

The authors acknowledged the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, for Research University (Q.J130000.2451.07G78) grant and the Graduate Research Assistantship to Mohd. Amir Asyraf Mohd. Hamzah. Our sincere gratitude also goes to the Malaysian Palm Oil Board for the GSAS Scholarship to Seri Elyanie Zulkifli.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

    Seri Elyanie Zulkifli, Mohd Amir Asyraf Mohd Hamzah & Zainul Akmar Zakaria

  2. Institute of Bioproduct Development, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

    Maizatulakmal Yahayu

  3. Engineering and Processing Research Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No.6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Astimar Abd. Aziz

  4. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Najihah Mohd. Hashim

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  1. Seri Elyanie Zulkifli
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Correspondence to Zainul Akmar Zakaria.

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Zulkifli, S.E., Hamzah, M.A.A.M., Yahayu, M. et al. Optimisation of microwave-assisted production of acid condensate from palm kernel shell and its biological activities. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 13, 10387–10397 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-01631-6

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