Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hard Labor and Hostile Encounters: What Human Remains Reveal about Institutional Violence and Chinese Immigrants Living in Carlin, Nevada (1885–1923)

  • Published:
Historical Archaeology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article identifies activity-related changes to, traumatic injuries on, and pathological conditions of the human remains of the Chinese immigrants from Carlin, Nevada, who were interred between 1885 and 1923. Chinese males came to the Americas to work as railroad laborers and miners, and when the railroad was completed many went home, but some found work in small towns. In Carlin, Chinese immigrants were employed as merchants, shopkeepers, cooks, laundry workers, and a variety of other occupations. Within this immigrant group, there were differences in the degree of physical labor each individual experienced. According to historical records, this was a time of increasing anti-Chinese sentiments, and there are accounts of intergroup conflict with the politically dominant settlers. However, little is known about the biological correlates of this sociopolitical inequality. An analysis of these correlates is assessed as a means for understanding patterns of social, economic, and political inequality between these immigrants and the local population. The findings demonstrate that socioeconomic and political inequality experienced by the Carlin individuals resulted in high rates of activity-induced changes, trauma, and pathological conditions. Furthermore, examination of the relationship between cranial trauma and other types of skeletal injuries supports research that has shown trauma to the head can predispose people to other types of trauma (accidental or deliberate). The results support the historical accounts of the time that indicate hard physical labor, accidental or deliberate trauma, and interpersonal conflict were part of the life history of this group of Chinese immigrants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ali, Alicia Alison 2001 Chinese Indentured Labourers in British Guiana (1838–1900): An Exploration of Colonial Text. Master’s thesis, Department of History, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, Stanley H., Jane E. Buikstra, and Harold W. Krueger 2003 Status and Gender Differences in Diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, Revealed by Isotopic Analysis of Bone. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22(3):217–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, Christopher, and Norman Mitchell 1981 Kubara: A Kuku-Yalanji View of the Chinese in North Queensland. Aboriginal History 5:21–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbour, Louise 2008 Blunt Force Trauma. In Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Remains Abuse and Armed Conflict, E. H. Kimmerle and J. P. Baraybar, editors, pp. 151–180. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arriaza, Bernardo T. 1997 Spondylolysis in Prehistoric Human Remains from Guam and Its Possible Etiology. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104(3):393–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auerbach, Benjamin M. 2011 Reaching Great Heights: Changes in Indigenous Stature, Body Size and Body Shape with Agricultural Intensification in North America. In Human Bioarchaeology of the Transition to Agriculture, R. Pinhasi and J. T. Stock, editors, pp. 203–233. Wiley-Blackwell Chichester, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Aufderheide, Authur C., and Conrado Rodríguez-Martin 2003 The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology, Reprinted from 1998 edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, R. 1994 Crime Data Brief: Violence and Theft in the Workplace. Office of Justice Programs (NCJ-148199), U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, William M. 2005 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual, 5th edition. Missouri Archaeological Society, Columbia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, M., H. Toumi, J. R. Ralphs, G. Bydder, T. M. Best, and S. Milz 2006 Where Tendons and Ligaments Meet Bone: Attachment Sites (‘Entheses’) in Relation to Exercise and/or Mechanical Load. Journal of Anatomy 208:471–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, John E. 1900 The Chinese Tong Wars in San Francisco. Harper’s Weekly 44:746–747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berryman, Hugh E., and Susan Jones Haun 1996 Applying Forensic Techniques to Interpret Cranial Fracture Patterns in an Archaeological Specimen. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6:2–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berryman, Hugh E., and Steven A. Symes 1998 Recognizing Gunshot and Blunt Cranial Trauma through Fracture Interpretation. In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd edition, K. J. Reichs, editor, pp. 333–352. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakey, Michael L. 1998 The New York African Burial Ground Project: An Examination of Enslaved Lives, a Construction of Ancestral Ties. Transforming Anthropology 7:53–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 2001 Bioarchaeology of the African Diaspora in the Americas: Its Origin and Scope. Annual Review of Anthropology 30:387–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakey, Michael L., M. E. Mack, E. G. Medford, S. D. Wilson, and A. Hankin 2000 Political Economy of Mortality of Enslaved Africans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 111(S30):108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boswell, Terry E. 1986 A Split Labor Market Analysis of Discrimination Against Chinese Immigrants, 1850–1882. American Sociological Review 51(3):352–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brain Injury Association of Wyoming 2004 Study of Undiagnosed Brain Injuries in Wyoming’s Prison Population, A. T. Force, editor. Wyoming Department of Health, Division of Developmental Disabilities, Casper.

  • Brink, Ole 2009 When Violence Strikes the Head, Neck, and Face. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 67(1):147–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, Sheilagh, and Judy Suchey 1990 Skeletal Age Determination Based on the Os Pubis: A Comparison of the Acsadi-Nemskeri and Suchey-Brooks Methods. Human Evolution 5(3):227–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budd, John W., Richard D. Arvey, and Peggy Lawless 1996 Correlates and Consequences of Workplace Violence. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1(2):197–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buikstra, Jane E., and Della Collins Cook 1980 Palaeopathology: An American Account. Annual Review of Anthropology 9:433–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buikstra, Jane E., and Douglas H. Ubelaker 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Research Series, No. 44. Fayetteville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buzon, Michele R., and Margaret A. Judd 2008 Investigating Health at Kerma: Sacrificial Versus Nonsacrificial Individuals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136(1):93–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buzon, Michele R., Phillip L. Walker, Francine Drayer Verhagen, and Susan L. Kerr 2005 Health and Disease in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco: Skeletal Evidence from a Forgotten Cemetery. Historical Archaeology 39(2):1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capasso, Luigi, Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, and Cynthia A. Wilczak 1999 Atlas of Occupational Markers on Human Remains. Edigrafital S.P.A., Teramo, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cardoso, F. Alves, and C. Y. Henderson 2010 Enthesopathy Formation in the Humerus: Data from Known Age-at-Death and Known Occupation Skeletal Collections. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141(4):550–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassel, Susie Lan (editor) 2002 The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caufield, J., A. Singhal, R. Moulton, F. Brenneman, D. Redelmeier, and A. J. Baker 2004 Trauma Recidivism in a Large Urban Canadian Population. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 57(4):872–876.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Center for Disease Control 2010 Traumatic Brain Injury in Prisons and Jails: An Unrecognized Problem. Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, Floyd 2002 Performing Exclusion and Resistance: Anti-Chinese League and Chee Kung Tong Parades in Territorial Arizona. TDR 46(1):39–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Sue Fawn, Fred P. Frampton, and Timothy W. Murphy 2005 Venerate these Bones: Chinese American Funerary and Burial Practices as Seen in Carlin, Elko County, Nevada. In Chinese American Death Rituals: Respecting the Ancestors, S. F. Chung and P. Wegars, editors, pp. 107–146. Altamira Press, Lanham, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Sue Fawn, and Priscilla Wegars 2005a Introduction. In Chinese American Death Rituals: Respecting the Ancestors, S. F. Chung and P. Wegars, editors, pp. 1–18. Altamira Press, Lanham, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Sue Fawn, and Priscilla Wegars (editors) 2005b Chinese American Death Rituals: Respecting the Ancestors. Altamira Press, Lanham, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloud, Patricia, and David W. Galenson 1987 Chinese Immigraton and Contract Labor in the Late Nineteenth Century. Explorations in Economic History 24(1):22–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, Mark Nathan, and George J. Armelagos (editors) 1984 Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, Ronald A., A. Rosenbaum, R. L. Kane, W. J. Wamken, and S. Benjamin 1999 Neuropsychological Correlates of Domestic Violence. Violence and Victims 14(4):397–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, Theodore M. III 1994 Size and Shape of the Femur and Tibia in Northern Plains. In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, R. L. Jantz and D. W. Owsley, editors, pp. 219–233. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corruccini, Robert S., J. S. Handler, R. J. Mutaw, and F. W. Lange 1982 Osteology of a Slave Burial Population from Barbados, West Indies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 59:443–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, S. L., C. S. Hirsch, F. V. Lucas, and B. A. Sebek 1980 The Contrecoup Phenomenon, Reapprasial of a Classic Problem. Human Pathology 11(2):155–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de la Cova, Carlina 2010 Cultural Patterns of Trauma among 19th-Century-Born Males in Cadaver Collections. American Anthropologist 112(4):589–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diehl, Michael, Jennifer A. Water, and J. Homer Thiel 1998 Acculturation and the Composition of the Diet of Tucson’s Overseas Chinese Gardeners at the Turn of the Century. Historical Archaeology 32(4):19–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drew, Laura B., and William E. Drew 2004 The Contrecoup–Coup Phenomenon: A New Understanding of the Mechanism of Closed Head Injury. Neurocritical Care 1:385–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, Russell R., and William D. Rowley 1987 History of Nevada, 2nd edition. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, Meredith A. B., Christopher W. Merritt, Shannon A. Novak, and Kelly J. Dixon 2011 The Signature of Starvation: A Comparison of Bone Processing at a Chinese Encampment in Montana and the Donner Party Camp in California. Historical Archaeology 45(2):97–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdmann, Detlev, Keith E. Follmar, Marklieke DBruijn, Anthony D. Bruno, S. H. Jung, D. Edelman, Srinivasan Mukundan, and J. R. Marcus 2008 A Retrospective Analysis of Facial Fracture Etiologies. Annals of Plastic Surgery 60(4):398–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eshed, Vered, Avi Gopher, Ehud Galili, and Israel Hershkovitz 2004 Musculoskeletal Stress Markers in Natufian Hunter- Gatherers and Neolithic Farmers in the Levant: The Upper Limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123(4):303–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, Paul 2004 An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Current Anthropology 45(3):305–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, Paul E., Bruce Nizeye, Sara Stulac, and Salman Keshavjee 2006 Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. PLOS Medicine 3(10). PLOS Medicine <http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/browse/issue/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fissue.pmed.V03.i0>. Accessed 25 December 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Floud, R., K. Wachter, and A. Gregory 1990 Height, Health and History: Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750–1980. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Follmar, Keith E., Marklieke DeBruijn, Alessio Baccarani, Anthony D. Bruno, Srinivasan Mukundan, Detlev Erdmann, and Jeffrey R. Marcus 2007 Concomitant Injuries in Patients with Panfacial Fractures. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 63(4):831–835.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fosha, Rose Estep, and Christopher Leatherman 2008 The Chinese Experience in Deadwood, South Dakota. Historical Archaeology 42(3):97–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. E., D. Baker, W. J. McHolick, and J. P. Lubicky 1984 The Natural History of Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 66(5):699–707.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galenson, David W. 1984 The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: Analysis. Journal of Economic History 44(1):1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallegos, A., Jennifer L. Thompson, Bernardo T. Arriaza, Sue Fawn Chung, Vicki Cassman, J. Conlogue, and R. Beckett 2002 Preliminary Analysis of a Naturally Mummified, Chinese Immigrant from Carlin, Nevada. Paper presented at the North American Paleopathology Association Meeting, Buffalo, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway, Allison 1999 The Biomechanics of Fracture Production. In Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. A. Galloway, editor, pp. 35–62. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin, John, Anna Clement, and Jane Humphris 2010 An Urewe Burial in Rwanda: Exchange, Health, Wealth and Violence c. AD 400. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 45(3):276–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaesser, Judith, Frank Neuner, Ralph Lütgehetmann, Roger Schmidt, and Thomas Elbert 2004 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury. BMC Psychiatry 4(5):1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glencross, Bonnie A. 2011 Skeletal Injury across the Life Course. In Social Bioarchaeology, S. C. Agarwal and B. A. Glencross, editors, pp. 390–409. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goodisson, Derek, Martin MacFarlane, Leslie Snape, and Balsam Darwish 2004 Head Injury and Associated Maxillofacial Injuries. New Zealand Medical Journal 117(1201). New Zealand Medical Association <http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/117-1201/1045>. Accessed 25 December 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, Alan H. 1998 The Biological Consequences of Inequality in Antiquity. In Building a New Biocultural Synthesis: Political-Economic Perspectives on Human Biology, A. H. Goodman and T. L. Leatherman, editors, pp. 147–169. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunnell, D., J. Rogers, and P. Dieppe 2001 Height and Health: Predicting Longevity from Bone Length in Archaeological Remains. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 55:505–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurdjian, E. S., and Edwin S. Gurdjian 1976 Cerebral Contusions: Re-evaluation of the Mechanism of Their Development. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 16(1):35–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guyomarc’h, Pierre, Maude Campagna-Vaillancourt, Célia Kremer, and Anny Sauvageau 2010 Discrimination of Falls and Blows in Blunt Head Trauma: A Multi-Criteria Approach. Journal of Forensic Sciences 55(2):423–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hadjizacharia, Pantelis, David S. Plurad, Donald J. Green, Joseph DuBose, Rodd Benfield, Anthony Shiflett, Kenji Inaba, Linda S. Chan, and Demetrios Demetriades 2009 Outcomes of Blunt Assault at a Level I Trauma Center. Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 66(4):1,202–1,206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, Shawn 2002 Connecting the West: Historic Railroad Stops and Stage Stations of Elko County, Nevada. University of Nevada Press, Reno.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hannon, Patrick, and Kerry Knapp 2006 Forensic Biomechanics. Lawyers & Judges, Tucson, AZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haris, Karen L. 2010 Sugar and Gold: Indentured Indian and Chinese Labour in South Africa. Journal of Social Sciences 25(1–3):147–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harod, Ryan P., Pierre Liénard, and Debra L. Martin 2010 The Walking Wounded: Mapping Nonlethal Violence on Living Turkana Africans to Provide Insight for Bioarchaeological Interpretations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141(S50):124.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2012 Deciphering Violence: The Potential of Modern Ethnography to Aid in the Interpretation of Archaeological Populations. In The Bioarchaeology of Violence, D. L. Martin, R. P. Harrod, and V. R. Pérez, editors, pp. 63–80. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Havelková, Petra, Sébastien Villotte Velemínský, L. Polácek, and M. Dobisíková 2011 Enthesopathies and Activity Patterns in the Early Medieval Great Moravian Population: Evidence of Division of Labour. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 21:487–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkey, Diane E. 1998 Disability, Compassion and the Skeletal Record: Using Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM) to Construct an Osteobiography from Early New Mexico. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8:326–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkey, Diane E., and Charles F. Merbs 1995 Activity-Induced Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM) and Subsistence Strategy Changes among Ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5:324–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, Bruce E., Joel E. Dimsdale, David B. Hoyt, Charles Berry, and Karsten Leitz 1995 Characteristics of Repeat Trauma Patients, San Diego County. American Journal of Public Health 85(7):1,008–1,010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hesketh, Kathryn L., Susan M. Duncan, Carole A. Estabrooks, Marlene A. Reimer, Phyllis Giovannetti, Kathryn Hyndman, and Sonia Acorn 2003 Workplace Violence in Alberta and British Columbia Hospitals. Health Policy 63(3):311–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hillson, Simon W. 1996 Dental Anthropology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hirata, Lucie C. 1979 Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in 19th Century America. Signs 5:3–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu-Dehart, E. 1993 Chinese Coolie Labour in Cuba in the Nineteeth Century: Free Labour or Neo Slavery. Slavery and Abolition 14(1):67–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain, Karim, Don B. Wijetunge, and Ian T. Jackson 1994 A Comprehensive Analysis of Craniofacial Trauma. Journal of Trauma 36(1):34–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, Stephen W., Angela Colantonio, Shirley Chiu, George Tolomiczenko, Alex Kiss, Laura Cowan, Donald A. Redelmeier, and Wendy Levinson 2008 The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on the Health of Homeless People. Canadian Medical Association Journal 179(8):779–784.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, Ronald M., Richard D. Adkins, and Rachel J. Hartigan 1994 Competition and Coexistence in the Laundry: A View of the Comstock. Western Historical Quarterly 25(2):164–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judd, Margaret A. 2002 Ancient Injury Recidivism: An Example from the Kerma Period of Ancient Nubia. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 12:89–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jurmain, Robert, and Viviana Ines Bellifemine 1997 Patterns of Cranial Trauma in a Prehistoric Population from Central California. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 7:43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jurmain, Robert, and Sébastien Villotte 2010 Terminology. Entheses in Medical Literature and Physical Anthropology: A Brief Review. Paper presented at the Workshop in Musculoskeletal Stress Markers(MSM): Limitations and Achievements in the Reconstruction of Past Activity Patterns, University of Coimbra, 2–3 July 2009. University of Coimbra, Centro de Investigação em Antropologia e Saúde http://www.uc.pt/en/cia/msm/MSM_terminology3. Accessed 5 June 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, C. R., C. C. Branas, and M. L. Brawley 1998 A Population-Based Study of Trauma Recidivism. Journal of Trauma 45:325–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keim, Jeanmarie 1999 Workplace Violence and Trauma: A 21st Century Rehabilitation Issue. Journal of Rehabilitation 65:16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, Robert L. 1995 The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, George 1969 Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific. Utah Historical Quarterly 37(1):41–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kremer, Célia, Stéphanie Racette, Charles-Antoine Dionne, and Anny Sauvageau 2008 Discrimination of Falls and Blows in Blunt Head Trauma: Systematic Study of the Hat Brim Line Rule in Relation to Skull Fractures. Journal of Forensic Sciences 53(3):716–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kremer, Célia, and Anny Sauvageau 2009 Discrimination of Falls and Blows in Blunt Head Trauma: Assessment of Predicability through Combined Criteria. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(4):923–926.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, Clark Spencer 1995 Biological Changes in Human Populations with Agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 24:185–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 1997 Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Le, Bach T., Eric J. Dierks, Brett A. Ueeck, Louis D. Homer, and Bryce F. Potter 2001 Maxillofacial Injuries Associated with Domestic Violence. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 59(11):1,277–1,283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leach, Edmund Ronald 1982 Social Anthropology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Kai H., Leslie Snape, Leon J. Steenberg, and James Worthington 2007 Comparison Between Interpersonal Violence and Motor Vehicle Accidents in the Aetiology of Maxillofacial Fractures. ANZ Journal of Surgery 77:695–698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Kai H., and Leon J. Steenberg 2008 Equine-Related Facial Fractures. International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 37:999–1,002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leon-Carion, J., and F. J. Ramos 2003 Blows to the Head during Development Can Predispose to Violent Criminal Behaviour: Rehabilitation of Consequences of Head Injury is a Measure for Crime Prevention. Brain Injury 17(3):207–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, G. Kenneth, and S. C. Peruisea 1959 The Complex Mandibular Fracture. American Journal of Surgery 97(3):283–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, Mary E. 2002 Impact of Industrialization: Comparative Study of Child Health in Four Sites from Medieval to Postmedieval England (AD 850–1859). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 119(3):211–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Light, Ivan 1974 From Vice District to Tourist Attraction: The Moral Career of American Chinatowns, 1880–1940. Pacific Historical Review 43(3):367–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limerick, Patricia Nelson 1987 The Legacy of Conquest. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lister, Florence C., and Robert H. Lister 1989a The Chinese of Early Tucson: Historic Archaeology from the Tucson Urban Renewal Project. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1989b Chinese Sojourners in Territorial Prescott. Journal of the Southwest 31:1–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liverse, A. R., V. I. Bazaliiski, O. I. Goriunova, and A. W. Weber 2009 Upper Limb Musculoskeletal Stress Markers among Middle Holocene Foragers of Siberia’s Cis-Baikal Region. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138(4):458–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magennis, Patrick, Jonathan Shepherd, Iain Hutchinson, and Andrew Brown 1998 Trends in Facial Injury: Increasing Violence more than Compensates for Decreasing Road Trauma. BMJ: British Medical Journal 316(7128):325–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, R. W., Lee Meadows, William M. Bass, and D. R. Waters 1987 Skeletal Remains from a Black Slave Cemetery, Montserrat, West Indies. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 56:319–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maples, W. R. 1986 Trauma Analysis by the Forensic Anthropologist. In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, K. J. Reichs, EDITOR, pp. 218–228. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchi, Damiano, and Colin N. Shaw 2011 Variation in Fibular Robusticity Reflects Variation in Mobility Patterns. Journal of Human Evolution 61(5):609–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mariotti, Valentina, Fiorenzo Facchini, and Maria Giovanna Belcastro 2007 The Study of Entheses: Proposal of a Standardised Scoring Method for Twenty-Three Entheses of the Postcranial Skeleton. Collegium Antropologicum 31(1):291–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, Debra L. 1997 Violence against Women in the La Plata River Valley (A.D. 1000–1300). In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, D. L. Martin and D. W. Frayer, editors, pp. 45–75. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2000 Bodies and Lives: Biological Indicators of Health Differentials and Division of Labor by Sex. In Women and Men in the Prehispanic Southwest: Labor, Power and Prestige, P. L. Crown, editor, pp. 267–300. School of American Research Press, Sante Fe, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2008 Ripped Flesh and Torn Souls: Evidence for Slavery in the Prehistoric Southwest, AD 800–1500. In Invisible Citizens: Captives and Their Consequences, C. M. Cameron, editor, pp. 159–180. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, Debra L., and Nancy J. Akins 2001 Unequal Treatment in Life as in Death: Trauma and Mortuary Behavior at La Plata (AD 1000–1300). In Ancient Burial Practices in the American Southwest, D. R. Mitchell and J. L. Brunson-Hadley, editors, pp. 223–248. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, Debra L., Ryan P. Harod, and Misty fields 2010 Beaten Down and Worked to the Bone: Bioarchaeological Investigations of Women and Violence in the Ancient Southwest. Landscapes of Violence 1(1). Scholarworks@UMassAmhersthttp://www.scholarworks.umass.edu/lov/vol1/iss1/3. Accessed 10 April 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masur, Lindi J. 2009 Stature Trends in Ancient Maya Populations: Re-examining Studies from Tikal and Altar de Sacrificios. Totem: The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 17(1). Western Libraries <http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/totem/vol17/iss1/10/>. Accessed 12 December 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClain, Charles J. 1996 In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America. University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, Kendall M. 2009 The Use of Musculoskeletal Stress Markers in Determining the Effects of Subsistence Change on the Inhabitants of the Nan Ranch Ruin. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merbs, Charles F. 1983 Patterns of Activity-Induced Pathology in a Canadian Inuit Population. National Museums of Canada, Archaeological Survey of Canada Mercury Series, No. 119. Ottawa, ON.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1989 Trauma. In Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton, M. Y. Iscan and K. A. R. Kennedy editors, pp. 161–199. Alan R. Liss, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, George R., and Rebecca J. Ferrell 2011 Conflict and Death in a Late Prehistoric Community in the American Midwest. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 68(4):415–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molnar, Petra 2006 Tracing Prehistoric Activities: Musculoskeletal Stress Marker Analysis of a Stone-Age Population on the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 129(1):12–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moran, Emilio F. 1982 Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morfin, Lourdes Marquez, Robert McCaa, Rebecca Storey, and Andres Del Angel 2002 Health and Nutrition in Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica. In The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, R. H. Steckel and J. C. Rose, editors, pp. 307–338. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, Stephen L. 2004 Economic Growth and the Biological Standard of Living in China, 1880–1930. Economics and Human Biology 2(2):197–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mummert, Amanda, Emily Esche, Joshua Robinson, and George J. Armelagos 2011 Stature and Robusticity during the Agricultural Transition: Evidence from the Bioarchaeological Record. Economics and Human Biology 9(3):284–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, Dian H., and Baoqi Qin 1994 The Origins of the Tiandihui: The Chinese Triads in Legend and History. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niinimäki, Sirpa 2011 What Do Muscle Marker Ruggedness Scores Actually Tell Us? International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 21:292–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ortner, D. J. 2003 Indentification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Academic Press, London, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owens, L. S. 2007 Craniofacial Trauma in the Prehispanic Canary Islands. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 17:465–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owsley, D. W., C. E. Orser, R. W. Mann, P. H. Moore-Jansen, and R. L. Montgomery 1987 Demography and Pathology of an Urban Slave Population from New Orleans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 74(2):185–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owsley, Douglas W., Kari Bruwelheide, Juliet Brundige, David Hunt, Chip Clark, and Rebecca Redmond 1997 Preliminary Report: Osteology and Paleopathology of the Carlin Chinese Cemetery. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parini, Rodrigo, Xóchitl Castañeda, Carlos Magis, Juan Ruiz, and George Lemp 2007 Migrant Bodies: Corporality, Sexuality, and Power among Mexican Migrant Men. Sexuality Research and Social Policy 4(3):62–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, Osbjorn M. 1997 Postcranial Morphology and the Origin of Modern Humans. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2000 Activity, Climate and Postcranial Robusticity: Implications for Modern Human Origins and Scenarios of Adaptive Change. Current Anthropology 41(4):569–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peebles, Gustav 2010 The Anthropology of Credit and Debt. Annual Review of Anthropology 39:225–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfaelzer, Jean 2008 Driven Out: The Forgotten War against Chinese Americans. University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phenice, T. W. 1969 A Newly Developed Visual Method of Sexing the Os Pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 30(2):297–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinhasi, Ron, Sofija Stefanovic, Anastasia Papathanasiou, and Jay T. Stock 2011 Variability in Long Bone Growth Patterns and Limb Proportions within and amongst Mesolithic and Neolithic Populations from Southeast Europe. In Human Bioarchaeology of the Transition to Agriculture, R. Pinhasi and J. T. Stock, editors, pp. 177–202. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, Mary Lucas 1988 Status and Health in Prehistory: A Case Study of the Moundville Chiefdom. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1991 Ranked Status and Health in the Mississippian Chiefdom at Moundville. In What Mean These Bones? Studies in Southeastern Bioarchaeology, M. L. Powell, S. Bridges, and A. M. W. Mires, editors, pp. 22–51. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rankin-Hill, Lesley M. 1990 Afro-American Biohistory: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rankin-Hill, Lesley M., Michael L. Blakey, S. H. H. Carington, and J. E. Howson 2000 Political Economy of Fertility and Population Growth among Enslaved Africans in Colonial New York. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 111(S30):259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathburn, T. A. 1987 Health and Disease at a South Carolina Plantation: 1840–1870. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 74(2):239–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rathburn, T. A., and J. D. Scurry 1991 Status and Health in Colonial South Carolina: Belleview Plantation, 1738–1756. In What Mean these Bones: Studies in Southeastern Bioarchaeology, M. L. Powell, S. Bridges, and A. M. W. Mires, editors, pp. 148–164. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiner, D. S., J. A. Pastena, K. G. Swan, J. J. Lindenthal, and C. D. Tischler 1990 Trauma Recidivism. American Surgeon 56:556–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. N. 1935 The Chinese Tongs. American Journal of Sociology 40(5):612–623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robb, John E. 1998 The Interpretation of Skeletal Muscle Sites: A Statistical Approach. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8:363–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues, Teresa 2006 Gender and Social Differentiation within the Turner Population, Ohio, as Evidenced by Activity-Induced Musculoskeletal Stress Markers. In Gathering Hopewell: Society, Ritual and Ritual Interaction, C. Carr and C. D. Troy, editors, pp. 405–427. Springer, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, Christopher B. 1999 Skeletal Structure and Behavioral Patterns of Prehistoric Great Basin Populations. In Prehistoric Lifeways in the Great Basin Wetlands: Bioarchaeological Reconstruction and Interpretation, B. E. Hemphill and C. S. Larsen, editors, pp. 290–320. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2005 Mechanical Determinants of Bone Form: Insights from Skeletal Remains. Journal of Musculoskeletal Neuronalogical Interaction 5(3):202–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2008 Biomechanical Analyses of Archaeological Human Skeletons. In Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, 2nd edition, M. A. Katzenberg and S. R. Saunders, editors, pp. 183–206. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, Christopher B., and Clark Spencer Larsen 2001 Reconstructing Behavior in Spanish Florida: The Biomechanical Evidence. In Bioarchaeology of Spanish Florida: The Impact of Colonialism, Clark Spencer Larsen, editor, pp. 290–320. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, and Margaret M. Lock 1987 The Mindful Body: A Prolegomenon to Future Work in Medical Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, new ser., 1(1):6–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Ryan W. 2006 The Forgotten Chinese Cemetery of Carlin, Nevada: A Bioanthropological Assessment. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2009 Perimortem Injury in a Chinese American Cemetery: Two Cases of Occupational Hazard or Interpersonal Violence. Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology 3(2). Internet Scientific Publications <http://www.ispub.com/journal/the-internet-journal-of-biologicalanthropology/volume-3-number-2/perimorteminjury-in-a-chinese-american-cemetery-two-casesof-occupational-hazard-or-interpersonal-violence.html#sthash.ciF5JjsX.dpbs>. Accessed 15 October 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, Ryan W., Noriko Seguchi, and Jennifer L. Thompson 2011 Chinese Immigrant Population History in North America Based on Craniometric Diversity. Anthropological Science 119(1):9–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, G. Richard, and Christy G. Turner II 1997 The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent Human Populations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, Rachel M., and Hallie R. Buckley 2010 Biocultural Interpretations of Trauma in Two Prehistoric Pacific Island Populations from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142(4):509–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, Colin N., and Jay T. Stock 2009 Intensity, Repetitiveness, and Directionality of Habitual Adolescent Mobility Patterns Influence the Tibial Diaphysis Morphology of Athletes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 140(1):149–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shillingford, Ron 2001 The Elite Forces Handbook of Unarmed Combat. Amber Books, London, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparacello, Vitale S., Osbjorn M. Pearson, A. Coppa, and Damiano Marchi 2011 Changes in Skeletal Robusticity in an Iron Age Agropastoral Group: The Samnites from the Alfedena Necropolis (Abruzzo, Central Italy). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 144(1):119–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steckel, Richard H. 1995 Stature and the Standard of Living. Journal of Economic Literature 33:1,903–1,940.

    Google Scholar 

  • 2008 Biological Measures of the Standard of Living. Journal of Economic Perspectives 22(1):129–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steckel, Richard H., and Jerome C. Rose (editors) 2002 The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefanovic, Sofija, and Marko Porcic 2013 Between-Group Differences in the Patterning of Musculo-Skeletal Stress Markers: Avoiding Confounding Factors by Focusing on Qualitative Aspects of Physical Activity. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 23(1):94–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, Judith M. 2004 Traumatic Brain Injury: An Effect and Cause of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 4:179–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steyn, M., M. Y. Iscan, M. de Kock, E. F. Kranioti, M. Michalodimitrakis, and E. N. L’Abbé 2010 Analysis of Ante Mortem Trauma in Three Modern Skeletal Populations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 20(5):561–571.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirland, A. J. 1998 Musculoskeletal Evidence for Activity: Problems of Evaluation. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8:354–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, Jay T., and Colin N. Shaw 2007 Which Measures of Diaphyseal Robusticity are Robust? A Comparison of External Methods of Quantifying the Strength of Long Bone Diaphyses to Cross-Sectional Geometric Properties. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134(3):412–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stodder, Ann L. W., Debra L. Martin, Alan H. Goodman, and Daniel T. Reff 2002 Cultural Longevity in the Face of Biological Stress: The Anasazi of the American Southwest. In The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, R. H. Steckel and J. C. Rose, editors, pp. 481–505. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Suby, J. A., and R. A. Guichón 2009 Diet, Nutrition and Femoral Robusticity of Hunter-Gatherers in Southern Patagonia: Experiences and Perspectives. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 19(2):328–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taggart, Christina 2010 Moche Human Sacrifice: The Role of Funerary and Warrior Sacrifice in Moche Ritual Organization. Totem: The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology 18(1). Western Libraries <http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/totem/vol18/iss1/10/>. Accessed 1 January 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Wei, Fan Feng, Jie Long, Yunfeng Lin, Hang Wang, Lei Liu, and Weidong Tian 2009 Sequential Surgical Treatment for Panfacial Fractures and Significance of Biological Osteosynthesis. Dental Traumatology 25(2):171–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, C. J., C. Null, and K. Shuja 2000 Musculoskeletal Indicators of Work Stress in Enslaved Africans in Colonial New York: Functional Anatomy of the Axial Appendicular Skeleton. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 111(S30):301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, Jennifer L., Bernardo T. Arriaza, A. Gallegos, Sue Fawn Chung, Vicki Cassman, J. Conlogue, and R. Beckett 2002 A Preliminary Report on the Chinese Immigrants from Carlin, Nevada. Paper presented at the Nevada Archaeological Association Meeting, Reno.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toll, David W. 2002 The Complete Nevada Traveler: The Affectionate and Intimately Detailed Guidebook to the Most Interesting State in America. Gold Hill, Virginia City, NV.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toschlog, E. A., S. G. Sagraves, M. R. Bard, P. J. Schenarts, C. C. Goettler, M. A. Newell, and M. F. Rotondo 2007 Rural Trauma Recidivism: A Different Disease. Archives of Surgery 142:77–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trotter, Mildred 1970 Estimation of Stature from Intact Long Bones. In Personal Identification in Mass Disasters, T. D. Stewart, editor, pp. 71–83. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tung, Tiffiny A. 2007 Trauma and Violence in the Wari Empire of the Peruvian Andes: Warfare, Raids, and Ritual Fights. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133(3):941–956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 2008 Violence after Imperial Collapse: A Study of Cranial Trauma among Late Intermediate Period Burials from the Former Huari Capital, Ayacucho, Peru. Nawpa Pacha 29:101–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, Christy G. II, C. R. Nichol, and G. Richard Scott 1991 Scoring Procedures for Key Morphological Traits of the Permanent Dentition: The Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System. In Advances in Dental Anthropology, M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen, editors, pp. 13–32. Wiley-Liss, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villotte, Sébastien, Dominique Castex, Vincent Couallier, Olivier Dutour, Christopher J. Knüsel, and Dominique Henry-Gambier 2010 Enthesopathies as Occupational Stress Markers: Evidence from the Upper Limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142(2):224–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilos, Jamie D., Jennifer L. Thompson, and Debra L. Martin 2010 Dental Morphology and Pathologies of Chinese Immigrants from Historic Carlin, Nevada. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141(S50):236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, Richard D. 2007 Transient Servitude: The U.S. Guest Worker Program for Exploiting Mexican and Central American Workers. Monthly Review 58(7):1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, Phillip L. 1989 Cranial Injuries as Evidence of Violence in Prehistoric Southern California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 80(3):313–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 1997 Wife Beating, Boxing, and Broken Noses: Skeletal Evidence for the Cultural Patterning of Violence. In Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past, D. L. Martin and D. W. Frayer editors, pp. 145–180. Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, Phillip L., and Bary S. Hewlett 1990 Dental Health Diet and Social Status among Central African Foragers and Farmers. American Anthropologist 92(2):383–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J. S. M., and William G. Stirling 1925 The Hung Society or the Society of Heaven and Earth, 3 vols. Baskerville Press, London, UK.

  • Watkins, R. 2012 Variations in Health and Socioeconomic Status within the W. Montague Cobb Skeletal Collection: Degenerative Joint Disease, Trauma and Cause of Death. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22(1):22–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watts, R. 2011 Non-Specific Indicators of Stress and Their Association with Age at Death in Medieval York: Using Stature and Vertebral Neural Canal Size to Examine the Effects of Stress Occurring during Different Periods of Development. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 21(5):568–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, Elizabeth 2004 Understanding Muscle Markers: Lower Limbs. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125(3):232–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 2007 Muscle Markers Revisited: Activity Pattern Reconstruction with Controls in a Central California Amerind Population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133(3):931–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, Elizabeth, B. Schultz, and L. Corona 2012 Sex Differences in Musculoskeletal Stress Markers: Problems with Activity Pattern Reconstructions. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22(1):70–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winchell, Frank, Jerome C. Rose, and Randall W. Moir 1995 Health and Hard Times: A Case Study from the Middle to Late Nineteeth Century in Eastern Texas. In Bodies of Evidence: Reconstructing History through Skeletal Analysis, A. L. Grauer, editor, 161–172. Wiley-Liss, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wren, Thomas (editor) 1904 A History of the State of Nevada: Its Resources and People. Lewis Publishing Company, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, Lori E. 2006 Diet, Health, and Status among the Pasión Maya: A Reappraisal of the Collapse. Vanderbilt Institute of Mesoamerican Archaeology, Monograph Series, Volume 2. Nashville, TN.

  • Wu, Ching-Chao 1927 The Chinese Family: Organization, Names, and Kinship Terms. American Anthropologist 29(3):316–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, Liping 1997 Chinaman’s Chance: The Chinese on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier. University Press of Colorado, Niwot.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas Las Vegas, NV, 89154-5003, USA

    Ryan P. Harrod, Jennifer L. Thompson & Debra L. Martin

Authors
  1. Ryan P. Harrod
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer L. Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Debra L. Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Harrod, R.P., Thompson, J.L. & Martin, D.L. Hard Labor and Hostile Encounters: What Human Remains Reveal about Institutional Violence and Chinese Immigrants Living in Carlin, Nevada (1885–1923). Hist Arch 46, 85–111 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03376880

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03376880

Search

Navigation