Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cigarette smoking predicts development of depressive symptoms among U.S. Adolescents

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

To examine whether adolescent cigarette smoking predicts the development of depressive symptoms, we used a longitudinal follow-up survey of 6,863 adolescents ages 12 to 18 in the U.S. who did not report notable depressive symptoms at baseline. This study used a self-report measure of six depressive symptoms experienced within the past twelve months at follow-up as the outcome of interest. Results indicated that 11.5% developed notable depressive symptoms at follow-up. There were marked gender differences with 15.3% of girls developing notable depressive symptoms compared to 8.1% of boys. Gender differences in depressive symptoms were consistent across all age groups and were apparent by the age of twelve. For both genders, smoking status was the most significant predictor of developing notable depressive symptoms. Several other risk factors including involvement in organized athletics, availability of social support, and personality characteristics were also found to be associated with development of depressive symptoms. Adolescent cigarette smoking may have marked health consequences in terms of depressive symptoms. The reduction of cigarette smoking among adolescents should be a focus of depression prevention interventions. In addition, the development of gender-specific components of prevention interventions may be warranted.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Lewinsohn PM, Clarke GN, Seeley JR, Rohde P: Major depression in community adolescents: Age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1994,33:809–818.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Capelli M, Clulow MK, Goodman JT, et al: Identifying depressed and suicidal adolescents in a teen health clinic.Journal of Adolescent Health. 1995,16:64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Garrison CZ, Jackson KL, Marsteller F, McKeown R, Addy C: A longitudinal study of depressive symptomatology in young adolescents.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1990,29:581–585.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Lewinsohn PM, Hops H, Roberts R, Seeley JR, Andrews J: Adolescent psychopathology: Prevalence and incidence of depression and otherDSM-III-R disorders in high school students.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1993,102:133–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Kandel DB, Davies M: Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1986,43:255–262.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Kashani JH, Calrson GA, Beck NC, et al: Depression, depressive symptoms, and depressed mood among a community sample of adolescents.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1987,144:931–934.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. McGree R, Stanton WR: Sources of distress among New Zealand adolescents.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1992,33:999–1010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Roberts RE, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR: Symptoms ofDSM-III-R major depression in adolescence: Evidence from an epidemiological survey.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1995,34:1608–1617.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Roberts RE, Chen Y: Depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation among Mexican-origin and Anglo adolescents.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1995,34:81–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Slavin LA, Rainer KL: Gender differences in emotional support and depressive symptoms among adolescents: A prospective analysis.American Journal of Community Psychology. 1990,18:407–421.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Covey LS, Tam D: Depressive mood, the single-parent home, and adolescent cigarette smoking.American Journal of Public Health. 1990,80:1330–1333.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Wang MQ, Fitzhugh EC, Westerfield RC, Eddy JM: Predicting smoking status by symptoms of depression for U.S. adolescents.Psychological Reports. 1994,75:911–914.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Hawkins WE, Hawskin MJ, Seeley J: Stress, health-related behavior, and quality-of-life on depressive symptomatology in a sample of adolescents.Psychological Reports. 1992,71:183–186.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kandel DB, Davies M: Epidemiology of depressive mood in adolescents.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1982,39:1205–1212.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Malkin SA, Allen DL: Differential characteristics of adolescent smokers and non-smokers.Journal of Family Practice. 1980,10:437–440.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Richardson JL, Radzisxewska B, Dent CW, Flay BR: Relationship between after-school care of adolescents and substance use, risk-taking, depressed mood, and academic achievement.Pediatrics. 1993,92:32–38.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Payne TJ, Stetson B, Stevens V, et al: The impact of cigarette smoking in headache patients.Headache. 1991,31:329–332.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Tamburrino MB, Lynch DJ, Nagel RW, Stadler N, Pauling T: Screening women in family practice settings: Association between depression and smoking cigarettes.Family Practice Research Journal. 1994,14:333–336.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Breslau N, Kilbey M, Andreski P: Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1991,48:1069–1074.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Patten CA, Martin JE: Does nicotine withdrawal affect smoking cessation? Clinical and theoretical issues.Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 1996,18(3):190–200.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Chess S, Thomas A, Hassibi M: Depression in childhood and adolescence. A prospective study of six cases.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1983,171:411–420.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Kandel DB, Raveis VH, Davies M: Suicidal ideation in adolescence: Depression, substance use, and other risk factors.Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1991,20:289–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Paton S, Kessler R, Kandel D: Depressive mood and adolescent illicit drug use: A longitudinal analysis.Journal of Genetic Psychology. 1977,131:267–289.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Rhode P, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR: Are adolescents changed by an episode of major depression?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1994,33:1289–1298.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Lewinsohn PM, Roberts RE, Seeley JR, et al: Adolescent psychopathology: II. Psychosocial risk factors for depression.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1994,103:302–315.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Parrott AC: Stress modulation over the day in cigarette smokers.Addiction. 1995,90:233–244.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Behar D, Winokur G, Berg CJ: Depression in the abstinent alcoholic.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1984,141:1105–1107.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Deykin EY, Levy JC, Wells V: Adolescent depression, alcohol and drug abuse.American Journal of Public Health. 1987,77:178–182.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Allen K, Moss A, Botman S, et al: Teenage attitudes and practices survey (TAPS): Methodology and response rates. 119th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association. Atlanta, GA: 1991.

  30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Changes in the cigarette brand preferences of adolescent smokers—United States, 1989–1993.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1994,43:577–581.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Cronbach LJ: Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests.Psychometrika. 1951,16:297–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Allen KF, Moss AJ, Giovino GA, Shopland DR, Pierce JP: Teenage tobacco-use: Data estimates from the Teenage Attitudes and Practices Survey: United States, 1989. InAdvance Data (No. 224). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Research Triangle Institute:SUDAAN Professional Software for Survey Data Analysis. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Shedler J, Block J: Adolescent drug use and psychological health. A longitudinal inquiry.American Psychologist. 1990,45:612–630.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Gritz ER: Reaching toward and beyond the year 2000 goals for cigarette smoking.Cancer. 1994,74:423–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Nelson DE, Giovino GA, Shopland DR, et al: Trends in cigarette smoking among U.S. adolescents, 1974 through 1991.American Journal of Public Health. 1995,85:34–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Pierce JP, Gilpin E, Burns DM, et al: Does tobacco advertising target young people to start smoking?Journal of the American Medical Association. 1991,266:3154–3158.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Altman DG, Schooler C, Basil MD: Alcohol and cigarette advertising on billboards.Health Education Research. 1991,6:487–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Flynn BS, Worden JK, Secker-Walker RH, et al: Prevention of cigarette smoking through mass media intervention and school programs.American Journal of Public Health. 1992,82:827–834.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Jason LA, Ji PY, Anes MD, Birkhead SH: Active enforcement of cigarette control laws in the prevention of cigarette sales to minors.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1991,266:3159–3161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Kelder SH, Perry CL, Klepp K, Lytle LL: Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity, and food choice behaviors.American Journal of Public Health. 1994,84:1121–1126.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Sussman S, Dent CW, Burton D, Stacy A, Flay BR:Developing School-Based Tobacco Use Prevention and Cessation Programs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Byrne DG, Brne AE, Reinhart MI: Personality, stress, and the decision to commence cigarette smoking in adolescence.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1995,39:53–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Petraitis J, Flay BR, Miller TQ: Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle.Psychological Bulletin. 1995,117:67–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Dilsaver SC, Pariser SF, Churchill CM, Larson CN: Is there a relationship between failing efforts to stop smoking and depression?Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 1990,10:153–154.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood LJ: Alcohol consumption and associated problems in a birth cohort of 15 year olds.New England Journal of Medicine. 1994,107:167–170.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Kendler KS, Neale MC, MacLean CJ, et al: Smoking and major depression.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1993,50:36–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Pomerleau OF, Collins AC, Shiffman S, Pomerleau CS: Why some people smoke and others do not: New perspectives.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1993,61:723–731.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Downey G, Coyne JC: Children of depressed parents: An integrative review.Psychological Bulletin. 1990,108:50–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Sher KJ, Trull TJ: Personality and disinhibitory psychopathology: Alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1994,103:92–102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Trull TJ, Sher KJ: Relationship between the five-factor model of personality and Axis I disorders in a non-clinical sample.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1994,103:350–360.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Wills TA, DuHamel K, Vaccaro D: Activity and mood temperament as predictors of adolescent substance use: Test of a self-regulation mediational model.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1995,68:901–916.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Hirshfield DR, Rosenbaum JF, Biederman J, et al: Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1992,31:103–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Miller WR, Brown JM: Self-regulation as a conceptual basis for the prevention of addictive behaviors. In Heather N, Miller W, Greeley J (eds).Self-Control and the Addictive Behaviors. Sydney, Australia: Maxwell Macmillan, 1991, 3–79.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Rothbart MK, Ahadi SA: Temperament and the development of personality.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1994,103:55–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Eysenck HJ:The Causes and Effects of Smoking. London: Temple Smith, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Tarter RE: Are there inherited behavioral traits that predispose to substance abuse?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1988,56:189–196.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Tarter RE, Alterman A, Edwards K: Vulnerability to alcoholism in men: A behavior-genetic perspective.Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1985,46:329–356.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Wills TA, Vaccaro D, McNamara G: Novelty-seeking, risk-taking, and related contructs as predictors of adolescent substance use: An application of Cloninger’s theory.Journal of Substance Abuse. 1994,6:1–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Martin CS, Earleywine M, Blackson TC, et al: Aggressivity, inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in boys at high and low risk for substance abuse.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 1994,22:177–203.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Sher KJ, Levenson RW: Risk for alcoholism and individual differences in the stress-response-dampening effect of alcohol.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1982,91:350–368.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Barnea Z, Teichman M: The reliability and consistency of self-reports on substance use in a longitudinal study.British Journal of Addiction. 1987,82:891–898.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Williams CL, Eng A, Botvin, GJ, Hill P, Wynder EL: Validation of students’ self-reported cigarette smoking status with plasma cotinine levels.American Journal of Public Health 1979,69:1271–1274.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Ross CE, Hayes D: Exercise and psychologic well-being in the community.American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988,127:762–771.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Sime WE Psychological benefits of exercise training in the healthy individual. In Matarazzo JD, Weiss SM, Herd JA, et al (eds),Behavioral Health: A Handbook of Health Enhancement and Disease Prevention. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1984, 488–508.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Brown JD, Lawton M: Stress and well-being in adolescence: The moderating role of physical exercise.Journal of Human Stress. 1986,12:125–131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Clark DC, Sommerfeldt L, Schwarz M, Hedeker D, Watel L: Physical recklessness in adolescence. Trait or byproduct of depressive/ suicidal states?Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1990,178:423–433.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Clayton S: Gender differences in psychosocial determinants of adolescent smoking.Journal of School Health. 1991,61:115–120.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment.Adolescent Health: Vol 1. Summary and Policy Options. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  70. McGee R, Feehan M, Williams S, Anderson J:DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1990,29:611–619.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kashani JH, Beck NC, Hoeper EW, et al: Psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1987,144:585–589.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Lewinsohn PM, Hops, H, Roberts R, Seeley JR, Andrews J: Adolescent psychopathology: Prevalence and incidence of depression and otherDSM-III-R disorders in high school students.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1993,102:133–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Reinherz HZ, Giaconia RM, Silverman AB, Friedman AC: Early psychosocial risks for adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. 5th Biennial Meetings of the Society for Research on Adolescence. San Diego, CA: February 10, 1994.

  74. Kazdin AE: Adolescent mental health: Prevention and treatment programs.American Psychologist. 1993,48:127–141.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Bukstein OG, Brent DA, Kaminer Y: Comorbidity of substance abuse and other psychiatric disorders in adolescents.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1989,146:1131–1141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Blum RW: Global trends in adolescent health.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1991,265:2711–2719.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Kann LK, Warren CW, Harris WA, et al: Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 1993.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1995,44:1–57.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, Mail Code 0901, 92093-0901, La Jolla, CA

    Won S. Choi, Christi A. Patten, Robert M. Kaplan & John P. Pierce

  2. San Diego State University, San Diego

    Christi A. Patten

  3. Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Diego

    J. Christian Gillin

Authors
  1. Won S. Choi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christi A. Patten
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. Christian Gillin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert M. Kaplan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. John P. Pierce
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by University of California Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program Award 4RT-0301, as well as by funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

This work was done during the tenure of Dr. Pierce’s established investigatorship from the American Heart Association.

About this article

Cite this article

Choi, W.S., Patten, C.A., Christian Gillin, J. et al. Cigarette smoking predicts development of depressive symptoms among U.S. Adolescents. ann. behav. med. 19, 42–50 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02883426

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02883426

Keywords

Search

Navigation