Abstract
The roots and shoots of vascular plants may be positionally and developmentally related in various ways. However, botanical teaching and research are strongly influenced by the paradigmatic annual dicotyledon, whose bipolar embryo develops into a plant with root and shoot meeting only at the hypocotyl. In 1930 Goebel criticized this example as a general model for plants, proposing instead the opposed concepts “allorhizy” (referring to plants whose root and shoot are related as above) and “homorhizy”(referring to plants without a bipolar embryo, all of whose roots are shoot-borne, e.g., pteridophytes). Goebel’s approach permeates the extensive German morphological literature, but has been virtually ignored in English-language literature. The allorhizy/homorhizy dichotomy has proved heuristic. However, it suggests a correlation between embryo type and mature morphology that does not always hold. Furthermore, it does not take into account the root-borne shoots typical of many plant species. Finally, Goebel’s presentation of the terms (which he does not explicitly define) creates ambiguity as to whether they designate structural concepts or the attributes of evolutionary groups. The alternative proposed here is a structural analysis of the possible topological relationships among root and shoot systems. Each structural class is then considered with regard to embryo types, potential for clonal growth and other ecological correlates, and phylogenetic distribution. This approach provides both a test of Goebel’s concepts and a basis for further comparative study of wholeplant form.
Zusammenfassung
Die Wurzeln und Sprossen der vaskulären Pflanzen können stellungsund entwicklungsmässig auf verschiedene Art aufeinander bezogen sein. Gleichwohl sind botanische Lehre und Forschung sehr stark beeinflusst von dem paradigmatischen jährlichen Dikotylen, dessen bipolares Embryo sich in eine Pflanze mit Vereinigung der Wurzelund Sprossensystemen ausschliesslich an dem Hypokotyl entwickelt. Im Jahre 1930 kritisierte Goebel dieses Beispiel als ein allgemeines Modell für Pflanzen, und schlug statt dessen die gegenseitigen Begriffe “Allorhizie” (was sich auf Pflanzen deren Wurzel und Spross verwandt, wie oben angefürt, bezieht) und “Homorhizie” (was sich auf Pflanzen ohne ein bipolares Embryo, alle dessen Wurzeln sprossbürtig sind, z. B. Pteridophyten, bezieht) vor. Goebels Versuch, sehr verbreitet in der umfassenden deutschen morphologischen Literatur, wurde aber in der englischen Literatur praktisch ignoriert. Die Allorhizie/Homorhizie Dichotomie bewies sich heuristisch. Trotzdem deutet sie eine Wechselbeziehung zwischen Embryotyp und Morphologie der ausgewachsenen Pflanze an, die nicht immer beweisbar ist. Ausserdem nimmt dies nicht die Wurzelsprosse typisch für so viele Pflanzenarten in Betracht. Letztlich, Goebels Darstellung der Begriffe (welche er nicht deutlich definiert) erzeugt Zweideutigkeit ob sie strukturelle Begriffe oder Attribute von evolutionären Gruppen bezeichnen. Die Alternative, die hier vorgeschlagen wird, ist eine strukturelle Analyse der möglichen topologischen Beziehungen zwischen Wurzelund Sprossensystemen. Jede strukturelle Klasse ist somit erwägt in Hinsicht auf die Embryotypen, Potential für klonales Wachstum und andere ökologischen Merkmale, und phylogenetische Verteilung. Dieser Versuch liefert sowohl eine Untersuchung von Goebels Begriffen als auch eine Basis für weitere vergleichende Studien der Form der ganzen Pflanzen.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature Cited
Aeschimann, D. &G. Bocquet. 1980a. Allorhizie et homorhizie, une réconsideration des définitions et de la terminologie. Candollea35: 19–35.
—. 1980b. Les types biologiques duSilene vulgaris s.l. (Caryophyllaceae). Candollea35: 451–495.
Arber, A. 1930. Root and shoot in the angiosperms: A study of morphological categories. New Phytol.29: 297–315.
— 1941. The interpretation of leaf and root in the angiosperms. Biol. Rev.16: 81–105.
—. 1950. The natural philosophy of plant form. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ballade, P. 1968. Caulogenèse apicale sur les jeunes racines du Cresson. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. Mém.115: 250–258.
— 1970. Précisions nouvelles sur la caulogenèse apicale des racines axillaires du Cresson. Planta92: 138–145.
Banks, H. P. 1968. The early history of land plants. Pages 73–107in E. T. Drake (ed.), Evolution and environment. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Barlow, P. W. 1986. Adventitious roots of whole plants: Their forms, functions, and evolution. Pages 67–110in M. B. Jackson (ed.), New root formation in plants and cuttings. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht.
Barnes, B. V. 1966. The clonal growth habit of American aspens. Ecology47: 439–447.
Beijerinck, M. W. 1921. Beobachtungen und Betrachtungen über Wurzelknospen und Nebenwurzeln. Pages 6–121 + vi pls.in Verzamelde Geschriften 2, Delft.
Bell, A. D. 1974. Rhizome organization in relation to vegetative spread inMedeola virginiana. J. Arnold Arb.55: 458–468.
—. 1984. Dynamic morphology: A contribution to plant population ecology. Pages 48–65in R. Dirzo & J. Sarukhán (eds.), Perspectives on plant population ecology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
Benzing, D. H., W. E. Friedman, G. Peterson &A. Renfrow. 1983. Shootlessness, velamentous roots, and the pre-eminence of the Orchidaceae in the epiphytic biotope. Amer. J. Bot.70: 121–133.
— &D. W. Ott. 1981. Vegetative reduction in epiphytic Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae: Its origin and significance. Biotropica13: 131–140.
Bierhorst, D. W. 1971. Morphology of vascular plants. Macmillan Co., New York.
—. 1985. On rhizoclads in the oak fern,Quercifilix zeilanica. Amer. J. Bot.72: 1159–1161.
Boke, N. 1980. Developmental morphology and anatomy in Cactaceae. BioScience30: 605–610.
Bonnett, H. T. &J. G. Torrey. 1965. Chemical control of organ formation in root segments ofConvolvulus culturedin vitro. Pl. Physiol.40: 1228–1236.
Bornman, C. H. 1978.Welwitschia, paradox of a parched paradise. C. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
Bower, F. O. 1935. Primitive land plants. Macmillan and Co., London.
Bremer, K., C. J. Humphries, B. D. Mishler &S. P. Churchill. 1987. On cladistic relationships in green plants. Taxon36: 339–349.
Brown, A. B. 1935. Cambial activity, root habit, and sucker development in two species of poplar. New Phytol.34: 163–179.
Buxbaum, F. 1950. Morphology of Cacti. Abbey Garden Press, Pasadena, California.
Castro e Santos, A. de. 1980. Essai de classification des arbres tropicaux selon leur capacité de réitération. Biotropica12: 187–194.
Chamberlain, C. J. 1919. The living cycads. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.
Champagnat, M. 1971. Recherches sur la multiplication végétative deNeottia nidus-avis. Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot. 12ème sér.12: 209–248.
Corner, E. J. H. 1966. The natural history of palms. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
Daubs, E. H. 1965. A monograph of Lemnaceae. Illinois Biol. Monogr.34: 1–118. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Docters van Leeuwen, W. 1921. On the vegetative propagation of two species ofTaeniophyllum from Java. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg31: 46–56.
Doyle, J. &M. J. Donoghue. 1986. Seed plant phytogeny and the origin of angiosperms: An experimental cladistic approach. Bot. Rev.52: 321–431.
Du Rietz, G. E. 1931. Life-forms of terrestrial flowering plants. Acta Phytogeogr. Suecica3: 1–95.
Ellmore, G. S. 1981. Root dimorphism inLudwigia peploides (Onagraceae): Structure and gas content of mature roots. Amer. J. Bot.68: 557–568.
Esau, K. 1977. Anatomy of seed plants. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Fisher, J. 1984. Tree architecture: Relationships between structure and function. Pages 541–589in R. A. White & W. C. Dickison (eds.), Contemporary problems in plant anatomy. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.
—. 1986. Branching patterns and angles in trees. Pages 493–523in T. J. Givnish (ed.), On the economy of plant form and function. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Foster, A. &E. Gifford. 1974. Comparative morphology of vascular plants, 2nd ed. Freeman, San Francisco.
Fujii, K. 1895. On the nature and origin of so-called “chichi” (nipple) ofGinkgo biloba, L. Bot. Mag. Tokyo9: 444–440 + i pl.
Goebel, K. 1878. Über Wurzelsprosse beiAnthurium longifolium. Bot. Zeitung36: 645–648.
—. 1900–1905. Organography of plants, ed. 2, trans, by I. B. Balfour. 2 volumes. Oxford University Press, London.
—. 1902. Über Regeneration im Pflanzenreich. Biol. Centralblatt22: 385–397, 417–438,481-505.
—. 1928–1933. Organographie der Pflanzen, 3 Aufl. 3 volumes. Verlag von Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Groff, P. A. 1986. Growth patterns inGentianopsis (Gentianaceae), with special reference toG. barbellata (Engelm.) Iltis. (Abstract.) Amer. J. Bot.73: 628.
Guédès, M. 1979. Morphology of seed plants. J. Cramer, Vaduz.
Guerrant, E. O. 1984. The role of ontogeny in the evolution and ecology of selected speciesof Delphinium andLimnanthes. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.
—. 1988. Heterochrony in plants: The intersection of evolution, ecology, and ontogeny.In M. McKinney (ed.), Heterochrony in evolution. Plenum Publishing Co., New York.
Haccius, B. 1953. Histogenetische Untersuchungen an Wurzelhaube und Kotyledonarscheide geophiler Keimpflanzen (Podophyllum undEranthis). Planta41: 439–458.
Hagemann, W. 1984. Die Baupläne der Pflanzen, 3 Aufl. Privately published, Heidelberg.
Hallé, F. &R. A. A. Oldeman. 1970. Essai sur l’architecture et la dynamique de croissance des arbres tropicaux. Masson and Co., Paris.
—, &P. B. Tomlinson. 1978. Tropical trees and forests: An architectural analysis. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Harper, J. L. 1977. Population biology of plants. Academic Press, London.
—. 1985. Modules, branches, and the capture of resources. Pages 1–34in J. B. C. Jackson, L. W. Buss & R. E. Cook (eds.), Population biology and evolution of clonal organisms. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Hickman, C. S. 1980. Gastropod radulae and the assessment of form in evolutionary paleontology. Paleobiology6: 276–294.
Holm, Th. 1925. On the development of buds upon roots and leaves. Ann. Bot.39: 867–881.
Hsiao, A. I. &G. I. McIntyre. 1984. Evidence of competition for water as a factor in the mechanism of root-bud inhibition in milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). Canad. J. Bot.62: 379–384.
Janczewski, E. de. 1876–1877. Recherches sur le développement des bourgeons dans les Prêles. Mém. Soc. Nationale Sc. Nat. de Cherbourg20: 69.
Janzen, D. H. 1976. Why bamboos take so long to flower. Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst.7: 347–391.
Jeannoda-Robinson, V. 1977. Contribution à l’étude de l’architecture des herbes. Thèse de spécialité, Montpellier.
Jenik, J. 1978. Roots and root systems in tropical trees: morphologic and ecologic aspects. Pages 323–349in P. B. Tomlinson & M. H. Zimmerman (eds.), Tropical trees as living systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
— &J. Kubíková. 1969. Root system of tropical trees. 3. The heterorhizis ofAeschynomene elaphroxylon (Guill. et Perr.) Taub. Preslia (Praha)41: 220–226.
Kaplan, D. R. 1969. Seed development inDowningia. Phytomorphology19: 253–278.
—. 1977. Morphological status of the shoot systems of Psilotaceae. Brittonia29:30–53.
—. 1984. The concept of homology and its central role in the elucidation of plant systematic relationships. Pages 51–70in T. Duncan & T. Stuessy (eds.), Cladistics: Perspectives on the reconstruction of evolutionary history. Columbia University Press, New York.
Karrfalt, E. E. 1981. The comparative and developmental morphology of the root system ofSelaginella selaginoides (L.) Link. Amer. J. Bot.68: 244–253.
Kormanik, P. P. &C. L. Brown. 1967. Root buds and the development of root suckers in sweetgum. For. Sci.13: 338–345.
Kuijt, J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Landolt, E. 1986. The family of Lemnaceae—A monographic study. Vol. I. Veröff. Geobot. Inst. ETH, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich71: 1–566.
Liem, K. F. &D. B. Wake. 1985. Morphology: Current approaches and concepts. Pages 366–377in M. Hildebrand, D. M. Bramble, K. F. Liem & D. B. Wake (eds.), Functional vertebrate morphology. Belknap/Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Lloyd, F. E. 1942. The carnivorous plants. Chronica Botanica, Waltham, Massachusetts.
Lorenzen, H. 1972. Physiologische Morphologie der höheren Pflanzen. E. Ulmer, Stuttgart.
Martens, P. 1971. Les Gnétophytes. Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie. Bd. 12, T. 2. Ge-brüder Borntraeger, Berlin.
McIntyre, G. I. 1979. Developmental studies onEuphorbia esula. Evidence for water as a factor in the mechanism of root bud inhibition. Canad. J. Bot.57: 2572–2581.
McLean, R. C. &W. R. Ivimey-Cook. 1951. Textbook of theoretical botany. Vol. 1. Longmans Green and Co., London.
McVeigh, I. 1937. Vegetative reproduction of the fern sporophyte. Bot. Rev.3: 457–497.
Mirov, N. T. 1967. The genusPinus. The Ronald Press Co., New York.
Mishler, B. D. &S. P. Churchill. 1984. A cladistic approach to the phytogeny of the “bryophytes”. Brittonia36: 406–424.
Nadkarni, N. M. 1981. Canopy roots: Convergent evolution in rainforest nutrient cycles. Science214: 1023–1024.
Noble, J. C., A. D. Bell &J. L. Harper. 1979. The population biology of plants with clonal growth. I. The morphology and structural demography ofCarex arenaria. J. Ecol.67: 983–1008.
Olderman, R. A. A. 1974. L’architecture de la forêt guyanaise. Mém. ORSTOM 73.
Pant, D. D. 1973.Cycas and the Cycadales, ed. 2. Central Book Depot, Allahabad.
Paolillo, D. J. 1982. Meristems and evolution: Developmental correspondence among the rhizomorphs of the lycopsids. Amer. J. Bot.69: 1032–1042.
Peterson, R. L. 1970. Bud formation at the root apex ofOphioglossum petiolatum. Phytomorphology20: 183–190.
—. 1975. The initiation and development of root buds. Pages 125–161in J.G. Torrey & D. T. Clarkson (eds.), The development and function of roots. Academic Press, London.
Piaget, J. 1970. Structuralism. Trans, by C. Maschler. Basic Books, New York.
Posluszny, U., M. J. Sharp &P. A. Keddy. 1984. Vegetative propagation inRhexia virginica (Melastomataceae): Some morphological and ecological considerations. Canad. J. Bot.62:2118–2121.
Raju, M. V. S., R. T. Coupland &T. A. Steeves. 1966. On the occurrence of root buds on perennial plants in Saskatchewan. Canad. J. Bot.44: 33–37 + i pl.
Rauh, W. 1937. Die Bildung von Hypokotylund Wurzelsprossen und ihre Bedeutung für die Wuchsformen der Pflanzen. Nova Acta Leopoldina, N. F.4: 393–553.
—. 1941. Morphologie der Nutzplanzen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig.
Raup, D. M. 1972. Approaches to morphologic analysis. Pages 28–44in T. J. M. Schopf (ed.), Models in paleobiology. Freeman, Cooper, and Co., San Francisco.
— &A. Michelson. 1965. Theoretical morphology of the coiled shell. Science147: 1294–1295.
Raven, J. A. 1986. Evolution of plant life forms. Pages 421–492in T. J. Givnish (ed.), On the economy of plant form and function. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Richards, J. H., J. Z. Beck &A. M. Hirsch. 1983. Structural investigations of asexual reproduction inNephrolepis exaltata andPlatycerium bifurcatum. Amer. J. Bot.70: 993–1001.
Rutishauser, R. &R. Sattler. 1985. Complementarity and heuristic value of contrasting models in structural botany. Bot. Jahrb. Syst.107: 415–455.
Sanford, R. L. 1987. Apogeotropic roots in an Amazon rain forest. Science235: 1062–1064.
Sattler, R. 1966. Towards a more adequate approach to comparative morphology. Phytomorphology16: 417–429.
— 1974. A new conception of the shoot of higher plants. J. Theor. Biol.47: 367–382.
— 1984. Homology-A continuing challenge. Syst. Bot.9: 382–394.
Sculthorpe, C. D. 1967. The biology of aquatic vascular plants. Edward Arnold Ltd., London.
Seilacher, A. 1973. Fabricational noise in adaptive morphology. Syst. Zool.22: 466–477.
Shinozaki, K., K. Yoda, K. Hozumi &T. Kira. 1964. A quantitative analysis of plant form—The pipe model theory. I. Basic analyses. II. Further evidence of the theory and its application in forest ecology. Jap. J. Ecol. (Nippon Seita Gakkaishi)14: 97–105, 133–139.
Slack, A. 1979. Carnivorous plants. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Stevenson, D. W. (In press). Strobilar ontogeny in the Cycadales.In P. Leins, P. Endress & S. Tucker (eds.), Aspects of floral development. E. Schweizerbart’sche, Stuttgart.
Stewart, W. N. 1983. Paleobotany and the evolution of plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Stone, E. C. &R. B. Vasey. 1968. Preservation of coast redwood on alluvial flats. Science159: 157–161.
Stoutamire, W. 1974. Terrestrial orchid seedlings. Pages 101–128in C. L. Withner (ed.), The orchids, scientific studies. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Taylor, P. 1986. New taxa inUtricularia (Lentibulariaceae). Kew Bull.41: 1–18.
Tiffney, B. &K. Niklas 1985. Clonal growth in land plants: A paleobotanical perspective. Pages 35–66in J. B. C. Jackson, L. W. Buss & R. E. Cook (eds.), Population biology and evolution of clonal organisms. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
Tomlinson, P. B. 1983. Tree architecture. Amer. Sci.71: 141–149.
— &M. H. Zimmerman (eds.). 1978. Tropical trees as living systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Torrey, J. G. 1958. Endogenous bud and root formation by isolated roots ofConvolvulus in vitro. Pl. Physiol.33: 258–263.
Troll, W. 1935–1943. Vergleichende Morphologie der höheren Pflanzen. Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin.
—. 1973. Allgemeine Botanik, 4 Aufl. Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart.
Von Teichman undLogischen, I. &P. J. Robbertse. 1981. The subterranean intermediary organs ofDioscorea cotinifolia Kunth. 2. Anatomy of these organs in comparison with that of a typical root and shoot. J. S. African Bot.47: 637–651.
— &H. P. van der Shijff. 1977. The subterranean intermediary organs ofDioscorea cotinifolia Kunth. 1. The germination, development, morphology, and vegetative reproduction of the tuberous swollen and cylindrical intermediary organs. J. S. African Bot.43: 41–56.
Wake, D. B. 1982. Functional and evolutionary morphology. Persp. Biol. Med.25: 603–620.
— &A. Larson. 1987. Multidimensional analysis of an evolving lineage. Science238: 42–48.
Warming, E. 1882. Die Familie der Podostemaceae. Bot. Jahrb. Syst.2: 361–364 + i pl.
—. 1909. Oecology of plants. Oxford University Press, London.
Weber, H. 1936. Vergleichend-morphologische Studien über die Sprossbürtige Bewurzelung. Nova Acta Leopoldina, N. F.4: 229–298 + ii pls.
Webster, T. R. &T. A. Steeves. 1967. Developmental morphology of the root ofSelaginella martensii Spring. Canad. J. Bot.45: 395–404.
White, J. 1979. The plant as a metapopulation. Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst.10: 109–145.
White, R. A. 1969. Vegetative propagation in the ferns. II. Root buds inAmphoradenium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club96: 10–19.
Willis, J. C. 1902. Studies in the morphology and ecology of the Podostemaceae of Ceylon and India. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya1: 267–465.
Wittrock, V. B. 1884. Über Wurzelsprossen bei krautartigen Gewächsen, mit besonderer Rücksicht auf ihre verschiedene biologische Bedeutung. Bot. Centralbl.17: 227–264.
Wochok, Z. S. &I. M. Sussex. 1976. Redetermination of cultured root tips to leafy shoots inSelaginella willdenovii. Plant Sci. Lett.6: 185–192.
Yamashita, T. 1976. Über die Embryound Wurzelentwicklung beiAponogeton madagascariensis. J. Fac. Sc. Univ. Tokyo III12: 37–63.
Zimmerman, M. H. 1978. Hydraulic architecture of some diffuse-porous trees. Canad. J. Bot.56: 2286–2295.
Zimmerman, W. 1930. Die Phylogenie der Pflanzen. Gustav Fischer Verlag. Jena.
—. 1953. Main results of the “telome theory.” The Paleobotanist1: 456–470.
—. 1965. Die Telomtheorie. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Groff, P.A., Kaplan, D.R. The relation of root systems to shoot systems in vascular plants. Bot. Rev 54, 387–422 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858417
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858417