Abstract
The roles of flavonoids in roots of legumes in the symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are compared with defense functions, using examples from three legume genera,Lotus, Medicago, andGlycine. Pathways leading to proanthocyanidins and isoflavonoids are emphasized. The localization of flavonoids in nodules involved in nitrogen fixation and in the apoplastic compartment of mycorrhizal associations is briefly described, with emphasis on the need for more information concerning their precise localization. Also emphasized are the limits of our knowledge about the regulatory genes of the flavonoid pathway involved in both exogenous and endogenous regulation of these complex interrelationships.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature Cited
Barz, W. &R. Welle. 1992. Biosynthesis and metabolism of isoflavones and pterocarpan phytoalexins in chickpea, soybean, and phytopathogenic fungi. Recent Adv. Phytochem.26:139–164.
Bauchrowitz, M. A., D. G. H. Barker &G. Truchet. 1995. Lectin genes are expressed throughout root nodule development and during nitrogen-fixation in theRhizobium-Medicago symbiosis. Pl. J.9: 31–43.
Bergersen, F. J. 1982. Root nodules of legumes: Structure and functions. John Wiley, New York.
Bonfante, P. &S. Perotto. 1995. Strategies of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi when infecting host plants. New Phytol.130: 3–21.
Brewin, N. J. 1991. Development of the legume root nodule. Ann. Rev. Cell Biol.7: 191–226.
Brown, S. M. &K. B. Walsh. 1994. Anatomy of the legume nodule cortex with respect to nodule permeability. Austral. J. Pl. Physiol.21: 49–68.
Carron, T. R., M. P. Robbins &P. Morris. 1994. Genetic modification of condensed tannin biosynthesis inLotus corniculatus. 1. Heterologous antisense dihydroflavonol reductase down-regulated tannin accumulation in “hairy root” cultures. Appl. Genet.87: 1006–1015.
Charrier, B. C., P. Cornonao, A. Kondorosi &P. Ratet. 1995. Molecular characterization and expression of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) flavanone-3-hydroxylase and dihydroflavonol-4-reductase encoding genes. PL Molec. Biol.29: 773–786.
Cooper, J. E. &J. R. Rao. 1992. Localized changes in flavonoid biosynthesis in roots ofLotus pedunculatus after infection byRhizobium loti. Pl. Physiol.100: 444–450.
Cronquist, A. 1988. The evolution and classification of flowering plants. Ed. 2. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx.
Dalton, D. A., L. M. Baird, L. Langeberg, C. Y. Taugher, W. R. Anyan, C. P. Vance &G. Sarath. 1993. Subcellular localization of oxygen defense enzymes in soybean (Glycine max L. Men.) root nodules. Pl. Physiol.102: 481–489.
Dewick, P. M. 1994. Isoflavonoids. Pages 117–238 in J. B. Harborne (ed.), The flavonoids. Chapman & Hall, London.
Dixon, R. A. &N. L. Paiva. 1995. Stress-induced phenylpropanoid metabolism. Pl. Cell7: 1085–1097.
—,M. J. Harrison &N. L. Paiva. 1995. The isoflavonoid phytoalexin pathway: From enzymes to genes to transcription factors. Physiol. Pl.93: 385–392.
Foo, L. Y. &L. J. Porter. 1980. The phytochemistry of proanthocyanidin polymers. Phytochemistry19: 1747–1754.
—,R. Newman, G. Waghorn, W. C. McNabb &M. J. Ulyatt. 1996. Proanthocyanidins fromLotus comiculatus. Phytochemistry41: 617–624.
Forkman, G. 1994. Genetics of flavonoids. Pages 537–564 in J. B. Harborne (ed.), The flavonoids. Chapman & Hall, London.
Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., A. Gollotte, J. Lherrminier, B. Tisserant, P. Franken, E. Dumas-Gaudot, M.-C. Lemoine, D. van Tunimen &S. Gianinazzi. 1995. Cellular and molecular approaches in the characterization of symbiotic events in functional arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. Canad. J. Bot.73(Suppl. 1): S526-S532.
Grady, H., R. G. Palmer &J. Imsande. 1995. Isoflavonoids in root and hypocotyl of soybean seedlings (Glycine max, Fabaceae). Amer. J. Bot.82: 964–968.
Graham, T. L. 1991. Flavonoid and isoflavonoid distribution in developing soybean seedling tissues and in seed and root exudates. Pl. Physiol.95: 594–603.
Grandmaison, J. &R. Ibrahim. 1995. Ultrastructural localization of a diprenylated isoflavone inRhizobium lupini-Lupinus albus symbiotic association. J. Exp. Bot.46: 231–237.
Grant, W. F. 1995. A chromosome atlas and interspecific-intergenic index forLotus andTetragonolobus (Fabaceae). Canad. J. Bot.73: 1787–1809.
Guo, L. &N. L. Paiva. 1995. Molecular cloning and expression of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) vestitone reductase, the penultimate enzyme in medicarpin biosynthesis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.320: 353–360.
Handburg, K. &J. Stougaard. 1992.Lotus japonicus, an autogamous, diploid legume species for classical and molecular genetics. Pl. J.2: 487–496.
Harrison, M. J. &R. A. Dixon. 1994. Spatial patterns of expression of flavonoid/isoflavonoid pathway genes during interactions between roots ofMedicago truncatula and the mycorrhizal fungusGlomus versiforme. Pl. J.6: 9–20.
Heller, W. &G. Forkman. 1994. Biosynthesis of flavonoids. Pages 499–535 in J. B. Harborne (ed.), The flavonoids. Chapman & Hall, London.
Hirsch, A. M. 1992. Developmental biology of legume nodulation. New Phytol.122: 211–237.
Karr, R. B., D. W. Emerich &A. L. Karr. 1992. Accumulation of the phytoalexin, glyceollin in root nodules of soybean formed by effective and ineffective strains ofBradyrhizobium japonicum. J. Chem. Ecol.18: 997–1008.
Kuc, J. 1995. Phytoalexins, stress metabolism, and disease resistance in plants. Annual Rev. Phytopath.33: 275–297.
Lambais, M. R. &M. C. Mehdy. 1995. Differential expression of defense-related genes in arbuscular mycorrhiza. Canad. J. Bot.73(Suppl. 1): S533-S540.
Mellor, R. B. &D. B. Collinge. 1995. A simple model based on known plant defence reactions is sufficient to explain most aspects of nodulation. J. Exp. Bot.46: 1–18.
Meyer, A. D. &R. B. Mellor. 1993. NOD-active compounds in soya nodules. J. Pl. Physiol.142: 57–60.
Morris, P. &M. P. Robbing. 1992. Condensed tannin formation byAgrobacterium rhizogenes transformed root and shoot organ cultures ofLotus corniculatus. J. Exp. Bot.43: 221–231.
Müller, P., A. Klaucke &E. Wengel. 1995. TnphoA-induced symbiotic mutants ofBradyrhizobium japonicum that impair cell and tissue differentiation inGlycine max nodules. Planta197: 163–175.
Mylona, P., K. Pawlowski &T. Bisseling. 1995. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Pl. Cell7: 869–885.
Oger, P., A. Petit &Y. Desaux. 1996. A simple technique for direct transformation and regeneration of the diploid legume speciesLotus japonicus. Pl. Sci.116: 159–168.
Pankhurst, C. E. &W. T. Jones. 1979a. Effectiveness ofLotus root sensitivity of fast-growing rhizobia to flavolans. J. Exp. Bot.30:1095–1107.
— &W. T. Jones. 1979b. Effectiveness ofLotus root nodules. III. Effect of combined nitrogen on nodule effectiveness and flavolan synthesis in plant roots. J. Exp. Bot.30: 1109–1118.
—,A. S. Craig &W. T. Jones. 1979. Effectiveness of root nodules rhizobia. J. Exp. Bot.30: 1085–1093.
Perlick, A. M., M. Frühling, G. Schroder, S. C. Frosch &A. Pühler. 1996. The broad bean gene VfNOD32 encodes a nodulin with sequence similarities to chitinases that is homologous to (a/b)8-barrel type seed proteins. Pl. Physiol.110:147–154.
Phillips, D. A. 1992. Flavonoids: Plant signals to soil microbes. Recent Adv. Phytochem.26: 201–231.
Polhill, R. M. &P. H. Raven, eds. 1981. Advances in legume systematics. Part 2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Rao, A. S. 1990. Root flavonoids. Bot. Rev. (Lancaster)56: 1–84.
Robbins, M. P., B. Thomas, P. Morris. 1995. Phenylpropanoid defence responses in transgenicLotus corniculatus. J. Exp. Bot.46: 513–524.
Sagan, M., D. Morandi, E. Tarenghi &G. Duc. 1995. Selection of nodulation and mycorrhizal mutants in the model plantMedicago truncatula (Gaertn.) after γ-ray mutagenesis. Pl. Sci.111: 63–71.
Sallaud, C., J. El-Turk, C. Breda, D. Bluffard, I. de Kozk &R. Esnault. 1995a. Differential expression of cDNA coding for chalcone reductase, a key enzyme of the 5-deoxyflavonoid pathway, under various stress conditions inMedicago sativa. Pl. Sci.109: 179–190.
——,C. L. Bigarre, H. Sevin, R. Welle &R. Esnault. 1995b. Nucleotide sequences of three chalcone reductase genes from alfalfa. Pl. Physiol.108: 869–870.
Soltis, D. E., P. S. Soltis, D. S. Morgan, S. S. Swensen, B. C. Mullin, J. M. Dowd &B. C. Martin. 1995. Chloroplast gene sequence data suggest a single origin of the predisposition for symbiotic nitrogen fixation in angiosperms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.92: 2647–2641.
Sprent J. I. &Embrapa. 1980. Root nodule anatomy, type of export product, and evolutionary origin in some Leguminosae. Pl. Cell & Environ.3: 35–43.
Staehelin, C., J. Müller, R. B. Mellor, A. Wiemken &T. Boiler. 1992. Chitinase and peroxidase in effective (fix+) and ineffective (fix−) soybean nodules. Planta187: 295–300.
Stafford, H. A. 1991. Flavonoid evolution: An enzymic approach. Pl. Physiol.96: 680–685.
—. 1995. Metabolism and regulation of phenolics: Gaps in our knowledge. Pages 15–30 in L. Gustine & H. E. Flores (eds.), Phytochemicals and health. Plenum Press, New York.
Stroczycki, P. M. &A. B. Logocki. 1995. Leghemoglobins from an evolutionarily old legume,Lupinus luteus. Pl. Sci.110: 83–89.
Thykjaer, T., J. Stiller, K. Handberg, J. Jones &J. Stougaard. 1995. The maize transposable element AC is mobile in the legumeLotus japonicus. Pl. Molec. Biol.27: 981–993.
Suganuma, N. H., K. Yamauchi &K. Yamamoto. 1995. Enhanced production of ethylene by soybean roots after inoculation withBradyrhizobium japonicum. Pl. Sci.111: 163–168.
Utrup, L. J. &J. H. Norris. 1996. Nodulin gene expression in effective root nodules of white sweetclover (Melilotos alba Desr.) and in ineffective nodules elicited by mutant strains ofRhizobium meliloti. J. Exp. Bot.47: 195–202.
Volpin, H., D. A. Phillips, Y. Okon &Y. Kapulnik. 1996. Suppression of an isoflavonid phytoalexin defense response in mycorrhizal alfalfa roots. Pl. Physiol.108: 1449–1454.
Wang, C.-S., J. J. Todd &L. O. Vodkin. 1994. Chalcone synthase mRNA and activity are reduced in yellow soybean seed coats with dominant I alleles. Pl. Physiol.105: 739–748.
Xie, Z.-P., C. Staehelin, H. Vierheilig, A. Wiemken, S. Jabbouri, W. J. Broughton, R. Vogeli-Lange &T. Boiler. 1995. Rhizobial nodulation factors stimulate mycorrhizal colonization of nodulating and nonnodulating soybeans. Pl. Physiol.108:1519–1525.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stafford, H.A. Roles of flavonoids in symbiotic and defense functions in legume roots. Bot. Rev 63, 27–39 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857916
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02857916