Abstract
An important contribution to empowerment theory and community psychology practice can be made by examining how the concept of social power is developed and manifested in the context of community organizing. Theory and practice may be further informed through an ecological analysis of organizing processes and interventions. Lessons from a national community organizing network highlight the relationship between empowerment and power through a set of organizing principles and a cycle of organizing activity. Perhaps most important is the understanding that a reciprocal relationship exists between development of power for community organizations and individual empowerment for organization members. Implications for empowerment theory in the community organizing domain are provided in a matrix adapted from Zimmerman's description of empowerment processes and outcomes at multiple levels of analysis.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alinsky, S. D. (1971).Rules for radicals. New York: Random House.
Bachrach, P., & Baratz, M. S. (1962). Two faces of power.American Political Science Review, 56, 947–952.
Berger, P. L., & Neuhaus, R. J. (1977).To empower people: The role of mediating structures in public policy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Research.
Chavis, D. M., Speer, P. W., Resnick, I., & Zippay, A. (1993). Building community capacity to address alcohol and drug abuse: Getting to the heart of the problem. In R. C. Davis, A. J. Lurigio, & D. Rosenbaum (Eds.),Drugs and community (pp. 251–284). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Clamp, C. (1987). Managing cooperation at Mondragon: Persistence and change. In E. M. Bennett (Ed.),Social intervention: Theory and practice (pp. 371–392). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.
Florin, P., & Wandersman, A. (1990). An introduction to citizen participation, voluntary organizations, and community development: Insights for empowerment through research.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 41–54.
Freire, P. (1970).Pedagogy for the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder.
Galbraith, J. K. (1983).The anatomy of power. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Gaventa, J. (1980).Power and powerlessness: Quiescence and rebellion in an Appalachian Valley. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Gutierrez, L. M. (1990). Working with women of color: An empowerment perspective.Social Work, 35, 149–153.
Heller, K. (1989). Return to community.American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 1–16.
Kelly, J. G. (1987). An ecological paradigm: Defining mental Health Consultation as a preventive service.Prevention in Human Services, 6, 1–35.
Kelly, J. G. (1992). On teaching the practice of prevention: Integrating the concept of prevention. In M. Chesler, S. E. Goldsten, & Joffe, J. M. (Eds.),The present and future of prevention (pp. 251–264). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Kieffer, C. H. (1984). Citizen empowerment: A development perspective.Prevention in Human Services, 3, (2/3), 9–35.
Knoke, D., & Wood, J. R. (1981).Organized for action. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Long, N. E. (1958). The local community as an ecology of games.American Journal of Sociology, 64, 251–261.
Lukes, S. (1974).Power: A radical view. London: Macmillan.
Mondros, J. B., & Wildon, S. M. (1994).Organizing for power and empowerment. New York: Columbia University Press.
Newbrough, J. R. (1992). Community psychology in the postmodern world.Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 10–25.
Park, R. E. (1936). Human ecology.American Journal of Sociology 17, 1–15.
Pierce, G. F. A. (1984).Activism that makes sense: Congregations and community organization. Chicago, IL: ACTA Publications.
Polsby, N. W. (1959). The sociology of community power: A reassessment.Social Forces, 37, 232–236.
Price, R. H. (1990). Whither participation and empowerment.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 163–168.
Rappaport, J. (1984). Studies in empowerment: Introduction to the issue.Prevention in Human Services, 5, 1–7.
Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of empowerment/exemples of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology.American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 121–144.
Reitzes, D. C., & Reitzes, D. C. (1987). The Alinsky legacy: Alive and kicking. In L. Kriesberg (Eds.),Social movements, conflicts and change. Greenwich, CT: Jai.
Riger, S. (1993). What's wrong the empowerment.American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 279–292.
Robinson, B., & Hanna, M. G. (1994). Lessons for academics grassroots community organizing: A case study—the Industrial Areas Foundation.Journal of Community Practice, 1, 63–94.
Speer, P. W., Hughey, J., Gensheimer, L. K., & Adams-Leavitt, W. (1995). Organizing for power: A comparative case study.Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 57–73.
Swift, C., & Levin, G. (1987). Empowerment: An emerging mental health technology.Journal of Primary Prevention, 8, 71–94.
Trickett, E. J. (1984). Toward a distinctive community psychology: An ecological metaphor for conduct of community research and the nature of training.American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 261–279.
Trickett, E. J. (1994). Human diversity and community psychology: Where ecology and empowerment meet.American Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 583–592.
Vincent, T. A., & Trickett, E. J. (1983). Preventive interventions and the human context: Ecological approaches to environmental assessment and change. In R. D. Felner, L. J. Jason, J. N. Moritsugu, & S. S. Farber (Eds.),Preventive psychology: Theory, research and practice. New York: Pergamon.
Wallace, R., Fullilove, M. T., & Wallace, D. (1992). Family systems and deurbanization: Implications for substance abuse. In J. H. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, & R. B. Millman, (Eds.),Substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook. Philadelphia, PA: Williams and Wilkins.
Wallerstein, N., & Bernstein, E. (1994). Introduction to community empowerment, participatory education and health.Health Education Quartely, 21, 141–148.
Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (in press). Citizen participation. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.),Handbook of community psychology. New York: Plenum Press.
Wicker, A. W. (1990). Levels of analysis of an ecological issue in the relational psychologies. In P. Tolan, C. Keys, F. Chertok, & L. Jason (Eds.),Researching community psychology: Issues of theory and methods. (pp. 127–130). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Whyte, W. F., & Whyte, K. K. (1991).Making Mondragon: The growth and dynamics of the worker cooperative complex. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim an empowerment research: On the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 169–177.
Zimmerman (1993 June).Empowerment theory: How do we know it when we see it? Paper presented at the fourth biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Williamsburg, VA.
Zimmerman, M. A. (in press). Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.),Handbook of community psychology, New York: Plenum Press.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived control and psychological empowerment.American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 725–750.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Zahniser, J. H. (1991). Refinements of sphere-specific measures of perceived control: Development of a sociopolitical control scale.Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 189–204.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Speer, P.W., Hughey, J. Community organizing: An ecological route to empowerment and power. Am J Commun Psychol 23, 729–748 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506989
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506989