Skip to main content
Log in

Foreign countries: The development of ethnoarchaeology in sub-Saharan Africa

  • Published:
Journal of World Prehistory Aims and scope

Abstract

Ethnoarchaeological research in sub-Saharan Africa began as a distinct study in the late 1960s and early 1970s and developed rather differently in different areas of the continent. This variability is related to a number of research circumstances in these regions: the presence of an important francophone archaeological tradition in West Africa, palaeoanthropological studies that have taken place in East and southern Africa over the last 60 years, and a concentration upon the study of forager groups in different parts of the continent. Ethnoarchaeology in West Africa, in East and Central Africa, and in southern Africa are examined in turn, with particular attention paid to the influence of research lineages in each region and to changes in methodologies and theoretical perspectives through time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agorsah, E. K. (1982). Spatial expression of traditional behavior: An ethnoarchaeological study.Archaeology at UCLA 2.

  • Agorsah, E. K. (1983). Patterns of spatial behavior among the Nchumuru.Nyame Akuma 23: 6–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agorsah, E. K. (1985). Archeological implications of traditional house construction among the Nchumuru of northern Ghana.Current Anthropology 26: 103–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agorsah, E. (1988a). Impact of ritual on spatial behaviour: An archaeological perspective.African Notes 12: 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agorsah, E. (1988b). Evaluating spatial behavior patterns of prehistoric societies.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7: 231–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agorsah, E. (1990). Ethnoarchaeology: The search for a self-corrective approach to the study of past human behavior.African Archaeological Review 8: 189–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aiyedun, K. (1991a). Contemporary material culture in Niger State: An ethnoarchaeological study.Nyame Akuma 35: 28–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aiyedun, K. (1991b). Utilization of meat animal by-products in Niger State: An ethnoarchaeological approach.Nyame Akuma 35: 30–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aiyedun, K. (1995). Aesthetic, domestic and nutritional uses of plant resources in Niger State: An ethnoarchaeological study.Nyame Akume 43: 28–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ammerman, A., Gifford, D., and Voorips, A. (1977). Toward an evaluation of sampling strategies: Simulated excavation of a Kenyan pastoralist site. In Hodder, I. (ed.),Simulation Studies in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 123–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anquandah, J. (1986). Investigating the stone circle mound sites and art works of Komaland, N. Ghana.Nyame Akuma 27: 10–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atherton, J. (1983). Ethnoarchaeology in Africa.African Archaeological Review 1: 75–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery, D., and Schmidt, P. (1979). A metallurgical study of the iron bloomery, as practised in Buhaya.Journal of Metals 31: 14–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahuchet, S., and Guillaume, H. (1982). Aka-farmer relations in northwest Congo Basin. In Leacock, E., and Lee, R. (eds.),Politics and History in Band Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 189–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahuchet, S., McKey, D., and de Garine, I. (1991). Wild yams revisited: Is independence from agriculture possible for rain forest hunter-gatherers?Human Ecology 19: 213–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, A. (1989). The lost world of Laurens van der Post.Current Anthropology 30: 104–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, A. (1992).Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barreateau, D., and Sorin-Barreteau, L. (1988). La poterie chez les Mofu-Gudur: des gestes, des formes et des mots. In Barreteau, D., and Tourneux. H. (eds.),Le Milieu et les Hommes: Recherches Comparitives et Historiques dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad, Editions de l'ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 287–339.

  • Bedaux, R. (1986). Pottery variation in present-day Dogon compunds (Mali): Preliminary results. In Singer, R., and Lundy, J. (eds.),Variation, Culture and Evolution in African Populations, Witwaterstrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp. 241–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedaux, R., and van der Waals, D. (1987). Aspects of life-span of Dogon pottery.Newsletter, Department of Pottery Technology, University of Leiden 5: 137–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berns, M. (1986).Art and History in the Lower Gongola Valley, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berns, M. (1989). Ceramic clues: Art history in the Gongola Valley.African Arts 22(2): 48–59, 102–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berns, M. (1993). Art, history and gender: Women and clay in West Africa.African Archaeological Review 11: 129–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernus, E. (1983). Place et role du forgeron dans la société touarègue.Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 236–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernus, E., Bernus, S., Cressier, P., Gouletquer, P.-L., and Poncet, Y. (1984). La région d'In Gall—Tegidda 'N Tessemt (Niger). Programme Archeologique d'Urgence 1977–1981. Vol. 1. Introduction: Methodologie et environnements.Etudes Nigeriennes 48, Institut de Recherches en Sciences Humaines, Niamey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernus, S. (1983). Découvertes, hypothèses, reconstitution et preuves: le cuivre médiéval d'Azelik—Takedda (Niger).Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 152–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. (1967). Smudge pits and hide smoking: The use of analogy in archaeological reasoning.American Antiquity 32: 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. (1968). Methodological considerations in the use of ethnographic data. In Lee, R., and DeVore, I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago.

  • Binford, S. (1968). Ethnographic data and understanding the Pleistocene. In Lee, R., and DeVore, I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago, pp. 274–275.

  • Blackburn, R. H. (1973). Okiek ceramics: Evidence for central Kenyan prehistory.Azania 8: 55–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackburn, R. (1974). The Okiek and their culture.Azania 9: 139–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brain, C. K. (1967). Hottentot food remains and their bearing on the interpretation of fossil bone assemblages.Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station 32: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brain, C. K. (1969). The contribution of the Namib Desert Hottentots to an understanding of Australopithecine bone accumulations.Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station 39: 13–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, S. (1995). The significance of variability in comtemporary flaked stone tools from Ethiopia. Papert presented at the Tenth Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Harare.

  • Brooks, A., and Yellen, J. (1987). The preservation of activity areas in the archaeological record: Ethnoarchaeological and archaeological work in northwest Ngamiland, Botswana. In Kent, S. (ed.),Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 63–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, A. S., Gelburd, D. E., and Yellen, J. E. (1984). Food production and culture change among the !Kung San: implications for prehistoric research. In Clark, J. D., and Brandt, S. A. (eds.),From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 293–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. (1990). Horn-shaping ground-stone axe-hammers.Azania 25: 57–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bunn, H., Bartram, L., and Kroll, E. (1988). Variability in bone assemblage formation from Hazda hunting, scavenging, and carcass processing.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7: 412–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1984). G//ana territorial organization.Human Ecology 12: 443–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1985). Coping with risk: Reciprocity among the Basarwa of northern Botswana.Man 20: 454–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1986). Competition between foragers and food-producers on the Botletli River, Botswana.Africa 56: 299–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavalli-Sforza, I. (ed.) (1986).African Pygmies, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Celis, G. R. (1987). Fondeurs et forgerons Ekonda (Equateur, Zaire).Anthropos 82: 109–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Celis, G. R. (1989). La métallurgie traditionelle au Burundi, au Rwanda et au Buha: Essai de synthèse.Anthropos 84: 25–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chauveau, J.-P. (1984) Une entreprise interdisciplinaire dans le domaine de la métallurgie africaine.Cahiers d'Études Afiicaines 95: 371–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J.D. (1959).The Prehistory of Southern Africa, Penguin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J. D., and Kurashina, H. (1981). A study of a modern tanner in Ethiopia and its relevance for archaeological interpretation. In Schiffer, M., and Gould, R. (eds.),Modern Material Culture: The Archaeology of Us, Academic Press, New York, pp. 303–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clifford, J. (1983). Power and dialogue in ethnography: Marcel Grialues initiation. In Stocking, G. (ed.),Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp. 121–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, S. (1963).The Prehistory of East Africa, Macmillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collett, D. P. (1993). Metaphors and representations associated with precolonial iron-smelting in eastern and southern Africa. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B. W., and Okpoko, A. (eds.),Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, London, pp. 499–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comaroff, J., and Comaroff, J. (1992).Ethnography and the Historical Imagination. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connah, G. (1975).The Archaeology of Benin, Claredon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connah, G. (1981),Three Thousand Years in Africa: Man and His Environment in the Lake Chad Region of Nigeria, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conkey, M., and Hastorf, C. (eds.) (1990).The Uses of Style in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, D., and Frank, B. (eds.). (1995).Status and Identity in West Africa, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crader, D. (1974). The effects of scavengers on bone material from a large mammal: An experiment conducted among the Bisa of the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. In Donnan, D. and Clewlow, C. (eds.), Ethnoarchaeology.Institute of Archaeology Monograph No. 4, University of California Press, Los Angeles, pp. 161–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, O. (1953).Archaeology in the Field, Prager, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crossland, L. B., and Posnansky, M. (1978). Pottery, people and trade at Begho, Nigeria. In Hodder, I. (ed.),The Spatial Organisation of Culture, Duckworth, London, pp. 77–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N. (1971). The Fulani compound and the archaeologist.World Archaeology 3: 111–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N. (1972). On the life span of pottery: Type frequencies and archaeological inference.American Antiquity 37: 141–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N. (1984). Editorial: Archaeology, ideology and reciprocity.African Archaeological Review 2: 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N. (1992). Lois et propositions ethno(archéo)logiques: Le cas du projet archéologique Mandara. In Audouze, F. (ed.), Ethnoarchéologie: Justification, problèmes, limites,Rencontres Internationales d'Archéologie et d'Histoire d'Antibes 12, Éditions APDCA, Juan-les-Pins, pp. 159–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., Heimann, R., Killick, D., and Wayman, M. (1989). Between bloomery and blast furnace: Mafa iron-smelting technology in North Cameroon.African Archaeological Review 7: 183–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., and MacEachern, S. (1988). The Mandara Archaeological Project: Preliminary results of the 1984 season. In Barreteau, D., and Tourneux, H. (eds.),Le Milieu et Les Hommes: Recherches Comparitives et Historiques dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad, Editions de l'ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 51–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., and Sterner, J. (1989). The Mandara Archaeological Project 1988–89.Nyame Akuma 32: 5–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., and Sterner, J. (1996). Water and iron: Phases in the history of Sukur. In Barreteau, D., and Siebert, U. (eds.),Mensch und Wasser im Tschadseeraum, Proc. Seminar des Intemationalen Forschungsnetzes Mega-Tschad, Johann Wolfgang Universität, Afrikanische Sprachwissenshaften, Frankfurt-am-Main (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., Sterner, J., and Gavua, K. (1988). Why pots are decorated.Current Anthropology 29: 365–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., and Hennig, H. (1972). The ethnography of pottery: A Fulani case study seen in archaeological perspective.McCaleb Module in Anthropology, 21, Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison, P. (1988). Social use of domestic space in a Mpondo household.South African Archaeological Bulletin 43: 100–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison, S., and Mosley, P. N. (1988). Iron-smelting in the upper north Rukuru basin of northern Malawi.Azania 23: 57–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Barros, P. (1985).The Bassar: Large-Scale Iron Producers of the West African Savanna, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Barros, P. (1988). Societal repercussions of the rise of large-scale traditional iron production: A West African example.African Archaeological Review 6: 91–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Barros, P. (1990). Changing paradigms, goals and methods in the archaeology of francophone West Africa. In Robertshaw, P. (ed.),A History of African Archaeology, Heinemann, Portsmouth, pp. 155–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Maret, P. (1990). Phases and facies in the archaeology of Central Africa. In Robertshaw, P. (ed.),A History of African Archaeology, Heinemann, Portsmouth, pp. 109–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, J. (1990). Weaving the fabric of Stone Age research in Southern Africa. In Robertshaw, P. (ed.),A History of African Archaeology, Heinemann, Portsmouth, pp. 39–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delneuf, M. (1987). Histoire du peuplement et cultures materielles: la poterie Giziga du Diamare' (Nord Cameroun). InColloques et Seminaires de l'ORSTOM: Langues et Cultures dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad, Editions de l'ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 87–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietler, M., and Herbich, I. (1989). Tich Matek: The technology of Luo pottery production and the definition of ceramic style.World Archaeology 21: 148–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietler, M., and Herbich, I. (1994). Ceramics and ethnic identity: Ethnoarchaeological observations on the distribution of pottery style and the relationship between the social contexts of production and consumption. InTerre Cuite et Société: la Céramique, Document Technique, Economique, Cultural: XIVieme Rencontres Internationales d'Archéologie et d'Histoire d'Antibes, Editions APDCA, Juan-les-Pins, pp. 459–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Domochowski, Z. (1990).An Introduction to Nigerian Traditional Architecture (3 vols.), Ethnographica, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donley, L. W. (1987). Life in the Swahili town house reveals the symbolic meaning of spaces and artefact assemblages.African Archaeological Review 5: 181–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, K. (1984).Children of the Forest, New York.

  • Echard, N. (1965). Notes sur les forgerons de l'Ader (pays Hausa, République de Niger).Journal de la Société des Africanistes 35: 353–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Echard, N. (1968).Noces de feu (film). Comité du Film Ethnographique, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Echard, N. (1970).Forgerons fils des femmes (film). Comité du Film Ethnographique, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Echard, N. (1983). Scories et symboles: Remarques sur la métallurgie hausa du fer au Niger.Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 209–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, J. (1994). After the cataclysm: A re-examination of ethnoarchaeology at Xawaal, Dheri, Somalia. Paper presented at the 12th Biennial Meeting of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, Bloomington.

  • Fabian, J. (1983).Time and the Other, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fanony, F. (1986) A propos de Mikea. In Kottak, P., Rakotoarisoa, J.-A., Southall, A., and Vérin, P. (eds.),Madagascar: Society and History, Carolina Academic Press, Durham, NC, pp. 143–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. (1993). Foragers and farmers: Material expressions of interaction at elephant processing sites in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. In From Bones to Behavior: Ethnoarchaeological and Experimental Contributions to the Interpretation of Faunal Remains.Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Occasional Paper 21, pp. 247–262.

  • Fisher, J., and Strickland, H. (1989). Ethnoarchaeology among the Efe pygmies, Zaire: Spatial organization of campsites.American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78: 473–484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, H. (1969). Asa and Aramanik: Cushitic hunters in Masai-land.Ethnology 8: 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, R. (1980). Spatial component of archaeological data: Off-site methods and some preliminary results from the Amboseli Basin, southern Kenya. In Leakey, R., and Ogot, B. (eds.),Proceedings of the 8th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, September 1977, International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute, Nairobi, pp. 39–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, R. (1981). Off-Site Archaeology and Human Adaptation in Eastern Africa: An Analysis of Regional Artefact Density in the Amboseli, Southern KenyaCambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 3, BAR, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folorunso, C., and Ogundele, S. (1993). Agriculture and settlement amoung the Tiv of Nigeria: Some ethnographic observations. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B. W., and Okpoko, A. (eds.),The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, New York, pp. 274–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, L. (1968). A theoretical framework for interpreting archaeological materials. In Lee, R. and DeVore, I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago, pp. 262–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freide, H., and Steel, R. (1980). Experimental burning of traditional Nguni huts.African Studies 39: 175–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fried, M. (1968). On the concept of “tribe” and “tribal society.” In Helm, J. (ed.),Essays on the Problem of Tribe, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, J. (1977). Contemporary stone tools in Ethiopia: Implications for archaeology.Journal of Field Archaeology 4: 407–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A. (1981).Le Sarnyéré dogon: Archeologie d'un isolat, Mali, Editions APDF, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A. (1986).L'Archéologie Demain, Belfond, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A. (1989). Logicism: A French view of archaeological theory founded in computational perspective.Antiquity 63(238): 27–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A. (1991). Itinéraires ethnoarchéologiques I.Documents de Departement d'Anthropologie et d'Ecologie de L'Université 18, Université de Geénève, Géneve.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A. (1992). A propos de la céramique actuelle du delta intérieur du Niger (Mali): Approche ethnoarchéologique et regies transculturelles. In Audouze, F. (ed.), Ethnoarchéologie: justification, problèmes, limites,Rencontres Internationales d'Archéologie et d'Histoire d'Antibe 12, Editions APDCA, Juan-les-Pins, pp. 67–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A., and Huysecom, E. (1989). Ethnoarchéologie africaine.Documents du Département d'Anthropologie et d'Ecologie 14, Université de Genève, Genève.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallay, A., Huysecom, E., Honegger, M., and Mayor, A. (1990). Hamdallahi, capitale de l'empire Peul du Massina,Sonderschriften des Frobenius-Institut 9, Franz Steiner, Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galloway, A. (1937). The characteristics of the skull of the Boskop physical type.American Journal of Physical Anthropology 23: 31–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garlake, P. (1995).The Hunters' Vision: The Prehistoric Rock Art of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, J. (1972). La civilisation Sao: Recherches archéologiques en pays Fali (Nord Cameroun).Archaeologia 49: 45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, J. (1979).Archéologie du Pays Fali, Nord Cameroun, CRET, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavua, K. (1990).Style in Mafa Material Culture. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Calgary, Calgary.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, D. (1978). Ethnoarchaeological observations of natural processes affecting cultural materials. In Gould, R. (ed.),Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, pp. 77–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, D. (1980). Ethnoarchaeological contributions to the taphonomy of human sites. In Behrensmeyer, A., and Hill, A. (eds.),Fossils in the making: vertebrate taphonomy and paleoecology, University of Chicago, Chicago, pp. 94–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, D., and Behrensmeyer, A. (1977) Observed formation and burial of a recent human occupation site in Kenya.Quaternary Research 8: 245–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford-Gonzalez, D. (1989). Modern analogues: Developing an interpretive framework. In Bonnichsen, R., and Sorg, M. (eds),Bone Modification, Center for the Study of the First Americans, Orono, pp. 215–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford-Gonzalez, D., Damrosch, D. B., Damrosch, D. R., Pryor, J., and Thunen, R. (1985). Third dimension in site structure: an experiment in trampling and vertical dispersal.American Antiquity 50: 803–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilman, S. (1985). Black bodies, white bodies: Toward an iconography of female sexuality in late nineteenth-century art, medicine and literature.Critical Enquiry 12: 204–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gooch, W. (1881). The Stone Age of Southern Africa.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 11: 124–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, R. (1992).The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gosselain, O. (1992a). Bonfire of the enquiries. Pottery firing temperatures in archaeology: What for?Journal of Archaeological Science 19: 243–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gosselain, O. (1992b). Technology and style: Potters and pottery among Bafia of Cameroon.Man 27: 559–586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gosselain, O. (1995). Skimming Through Potters Agendas: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Clay Selection Strategies in Cameroon. In Childs, T. (ed.), Society, Culture and Technology in Africa,MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology (Supplement to Vol. 11), MASCA, Philadelphia, pp. 99–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goucher, C. (1981). Iron is iron 'til it is rust: Trade and ecology in the decline of West African iron smelting.Journal of African History 22: 179–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goucher, C. (1984).The Iron Industry of Bassar, Togo, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, R., and Yellen, J. (1987). Man the hunted: Determinants of household spacing in desert and tropical foraging societies.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 6: 77–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gouletquer, P. (1983) Territoires et techniques: Le sel et le fer.Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 173–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griaule, M. (1943).Les Sao Légendaires, Gallimard, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griaule, M., and Lebeuf, J.-P. (1948). Fouilles dans la région du Tchad, I.Journal de la Société des Africainistes 18: 1–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griaule, M., and Lebeuf, J.-P. (1950). Fouilles dans la région du Tchad, II.Journal de la Société des Africainistes 20: 1–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griaule, M., and Lebeuf, J.-P. (1951). Fouilles dans la région du Tchad, III.Journal de la Société des Africainistes 21: 1–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haaland, R. (1980). Mans role in the changing habitat of mema during the old kingdom of Ghana.Norwegian Archaeological Review 15: 31–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M. (1984). Burden of tribalism: the social context of southern African Iron Age studes.American Antiquity 49: 455–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M. (1990). “Hidden history”: Iron Age archaeology in Southern Africa. In Robertshaw, P. (ed.),A History of African Archaeology, Heinemann, Portsmouth, pp. 59–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, J. A. (1978). From subsistence to market: A case study of Mbuti net hunters.Human Ecology 6: 325–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, T., and Hart, J. (1986). Ecological basis of hunter-gatherer subsistence in African rain forests: The Mbuti of eastern Zaire.Human Ecology 14: 29–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, K. (1993). Why hunter-gatherers work: An ancient version of the problem of public goods.Current Anthropology 34: 341–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Headland, T., and Reid, L. (1989). Hunter-gatherers and their neighbors from prehistory to the present.Current Anthropology 30: 43–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, E., and Pole, L. (1989). African iron working on film and video.Nyame Akuma 31: 47–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbich, I. (1987). Learning patterns, potter interaction and ceramic style among the Luo of Kenya.African Archaeological Review 5: 193–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbich, I., and Dietler, M. (1991). Aspects of the ceramic system of the Luo of Kenya. In Ludtke, H. and Vossen, R. (eds.),Topferei- und Keramikforschung: Topfereiforschung—Archaologisch, Ethnologisch, Volkskundlich 2, Dr. Rudolf Habelt Gmbh, Bonn, pp. 105–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiernaux, J. (1974).The People of Africa, Charles Scribner's, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R. (1980). The ethnoarchaeology of sedentism: a Kalahari case. In Leakey, R., and Ogot, B. (eds.),Proceedings of the 8th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, September 1977, International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute, Nairobi, pp. 300–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R. (1982). Patterns of sedentism among the Basarwa of eastern Botswana. In Leacock, E., and Lee, R. (eds.),Politics and History in Band Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 223–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R. (1987). Sedentism and site structure: Organization changes in Kalahari Basarwa residential locations. In Kent, S. (ed.),Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 374–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, R., and Ebert, J. I. (1984). Foraging and food production among Kalahari hunter/gatherers. In Clark, J.D., and Brandt, S. A. (eds.),From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 328–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hivernel, F. (1980). An ethnoarchaeological model for the study of environmental use. In Leakey, R., and Ogot, B. (eds.),Proceedings of the 8th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, September 1977, International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute, Nairobi, pp. 27–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hivernel, F. (1983). Excavations at Ngenyn (Baringo District, Kenya).Azania 18: 45–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hivernel-Guerre, F. (1983). Archaeological excavation and ethnoarchaeological interpretation: A case study in Kenya.Archaeological Review from Cambridge 2: 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1977). The distribution of material culture items in the Baringo district, western Kenya.Man 12: 239–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1978). The spatial structure of material “cultures”: a review of some of the evidence. In Hodder, I. (ed.),The Spatial Organisation of Culture, Duckworth, London, pp. 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1982a).Symbols in Action, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1982b). Theoretical archaeology: A reactionary view. In Hodder, I. (ed.),Symbolic and Structural Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1984). Archaeology in 1984.Antiquity 58: 25–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1986a).Reading the Past, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1986b). A reply to the editor.African Archaeological Review 4: 5–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1986c). Politics and ideology at the World Archaeological Congress 1986.Archaeological Review from Cambridge 5: 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I. (1991). The decoration of containers: An ethnographic and historical study. In Longacre, W. A. (ed.),Ceramic Ethnoarchaeology, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 71–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodder, I., and Orton, C. (1976).Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holl, A. (1987). Mound formation processes and societal transformations: A case study from the Perichadian plain.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 6: 122–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holl, A. (1993). Community interaction and settlement patterning in northern Cameroon. In Holl, A., and Levy, T. E. (eds.), Spatial boundaries and social dynamics: Case studies from food-producing societies,International Monographs in Prehistory Ethnoarchaeological Series 2: 39–61.

  • Holl, A., Levy, T., Lechevalier, C., and Bridault, A. (1991). Of men, mounds and cattle: Archaeology and ethnoarchaeology in the Houlouf region (Northern Cameroon).West African Journal of Archaeology 21: 7–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, J. (1993). Impacts of domestic dogs on bone in forager camps; Or, the dog-gone bones. In From Bones to Behavior: Ethnoarchaeological and Experimental Contributions to the Interpretation of Faunal Remains.Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 21, pp. 301–323.

  • Huffman, T. (1982). Archaeology and ethnohistory of the African Iron Age.Annual Review of Anthropology 11: 133–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, T. (1984). Expressive space in the Zimbabwe culture.Man 19: 593–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, T. (1986). Iron Age settlement patterns and the origins of class distinction in southern Africa.Advances In World Archaeology 5: 291–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huysecom, E. (1991). Les percuteurs d'argile: Des outils de potierès africaines utilises de la prèhistoires á nos jours.Bulletin du Centre Génèvois D'Anthropologie 3: 70–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huysecom, E. (1992). Vers une ethnoarcheologie appliquée: exemples africains. In Audouze, F. (ed.), Ethnoarchéologie: justification, problèmes, limites.Rencontres Internationales d'Archéologie et d'Histoire d'Antibes 12: 91–102.

  • Huysecom, E. (1993). Ethnoarchaologie—methodologie und perspektiven.EAZ: Ethnographie—Archäologie 34: 241–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huysecom, E., and Mayor, A. (1993). Les traditions céramiques du delta intérieur du Niger: Présent et passé. InCatalogue de I'Exposition “Vallées du Niger,” Musée Nationale des Arts Africains et Océaniens a Paris, pp. 297–313.

  • Ichikawa, M. (1978). The residential groups of the Mbuti Pygmies.Senri Ethnological Studies 1: 131–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ichikawa, M. (1986). Ecological bases of symbiosis, territoriality and intra-band cooperation of the Mbuti Pygmies.SUGIA: Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 7(1): 161–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaac, G. (1967). Towards the interpretation of occupation debris—some experiments and observations.Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 37: 31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jemkur, J. F. (1989). Traditional iron-smelting methods by the Berom of Plateau State, Nigeria.Nyame Akuma 32: 21–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kannemeyer, D. (1890). Stone implements: With a description of Bushman stone implements and relics: their names, uses, mode of manufacture and occurrence.Cape Illustrated Magazine 1: 120–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kassam, A., and Mergesa, G. (1989). Iron and beads: Male and female symbols of creation. A study of ornament among Booran Oromo. In Hodder, I. (ed.),The Meanings of Things: Material Culture and Symbolic Expression, Unwin Hyman, London, pp. 23–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, R., and Poyer, L. (1994). Mikea foraging and ethnoarchaeology in southwestern Madagascar: A report of reconnaissance. Paper presented at the Twelfth Biennial Meeting of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, Bloomington.

  • Kent, S. (ed.) (1987).Method and Theory for Activity Area Research: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, S. (1990). Cross-cultural study of segmentation, architecture, and the use of space. In Kent, S. (ed.),Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space: An Interdisciplinary Cross-Cultural Study, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 127–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, S. (1991a). Partitioning space: Cross-cultural factors involving domestic spatial configuration.Environmental Behavior 23: 438–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, S. (1991b). The shift to sedentism as viewed from a recently sedentary Kalahari village.Nyame Akuma 35: 2–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, S. (1992). The current forager controversy: Real vs ideal views of hunter-gatherers.Man 27(1): 45–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick, D. (1990).Technology in Its Social Setting: Bloomery Iron-Smelting at Kasungu, Malawi,1860–1940, Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University.

  • Killick, D. (1996). On claims for “advanced” ironworking technology in precolonial Africa. In Schmidt, P. (ed.),The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production, University of Florida Press, Gainsville pp. 247–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Killick, D., David, N., and MacEachern, A. S. (1994). Ethnographic studies of iron smelting in North Cameroon. Paper presented at the 29th International Symposium on Archaeometry, Ankara.

  • Kinahan, J. (1986). The archaeological structure of pastoral production in the central Namib desert In Hall, M., and Smith, A. (ed.),Prehistoric Pastoralism in Southern Africa 5: 69–82.

  • Kiriama, H. (1993). Iron-using communities in Kenya. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B. W., and Okpoko, A. (eds.),Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, London, pp. 484–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klumpp, D., and Kratz, C. (1993). Aesthetics, expertise, and ethnicity: Okiek and Maasai perspectives on personal ornament. In Spear, T., and Waller, R. (eds.),Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa, James Currey, London, pp. 195–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, R. (1985).The Clay Sleeps An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Three African Potters, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, R. (1990). Ceramic practice and semantic space: An ethnoarchaeological inquiry into the logic of Bantu potting.Antiquity 64: 711–726.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuper, A. (1980). Symbolic dimensions of the southern Bantu household.Africa 50: 8–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kus, S., and Raharijaona, V. (1990). Domestic space and the tenacity of tradition among some Betsileo of Madagascar. In Kent, S. (ed),Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space: an Interdisciplinary Cross-Cultural Study, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 21–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, P. J. (1994). Temporal structuring of settlement space among the Dogon of Mali: an ethnoarchaeological study.Architecture and Order Approaches to Social Space, Routledge, London, pp. 196–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larick, R. (1985). Spears, style and time among Maa-speaking pastoralists.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4: 206–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larick, R. (1986a). Age grading and ethnicity in the style of Loikop (Samburu) spears.World Archaeology 18: 268–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larick, R. (1986b). Iron smelting and interethnic conflict among precolonial Maa-speaking pastoralists of north-central Kenya.African Archaeological Review 4: 165–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larick, R. (1987). Circulation of spears among Loikop cattle pastoralists of Samburu District, Kenya.Research in Economic Anthropology 9: 143–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larick, R. (1991). Warriors and blacksmiths: Mediating ethnicity in East African spears.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10: 299–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaViolette, A. (1987).An Archaeological Ethnography of Blacksmiths, Potters and Masons in Jenne, Mali (West Africa), Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaViolette, A. (1995). Masons of Mali: A millennium of design and technology in earthen materials. In Childs, T. (ed.), Society, Culture and Technology in Africa,MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology (Supplement to VoL 11), MASCA, Philadelphia, pp. 86–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, A. (1959).Les populations du Tchad, P. U. F., Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, A. (1969).Les Principautés Kotoko, Editions du C.N.R.S., Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1938a). Les rites funéraires chez les Fali.Journal de la Société des Africainistes 8: 103–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1938b). La circoncision chez les Kotoko, dans l'ancien pays Sao.Journal de la Société des Africainistes 8: 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1941). Vocabulaires comparés des parlers de 16 villages Fali de Cameroun septentrionale,Journal de la Société des Africainistes 11: 33–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1955). Les souverains de Logone-Birni.Études Camerounaises 47/48: 3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1962).Archéologie Tchadienne: Les Sao du Cameroun et du Tchad, Hermann, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1969).Carte archéologique des abords du Lac Tchad (Cameroun, Nigeria, Tchad), Editions du CNRS, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P. (1992). Populations anciennes du sud du Lac Tchad. In Essomba, J.-M. (ed.)L'Archéologie au Cameroun, Karthala, Paris, pp. 91–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebeuf, J.-P., and Lebeuf, A.M.D. (1977).Les Arts des Sao, Paris.

  • Lebeuf, J.-P., Lebeuf, A.M.D., Treinen-Claustre, F., and Courtin, J. (1980).Le Gisement Sao de Mdaga (Tchad): Fouilles 1960–1968, Société d'Ethnographie, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. (1968). What hunters do for a living, or, how to make out on scarce resources. In Lee, R., and DeVore, I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago, pp. 30–48.

  • Lee, R. (1979).The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., and DeVore, I. (eds.) (1968).Man The Hunter. Aldine Atherton, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., and Guenther, M. (1993). Problems in Kalahari historical ethnography and the tolerance for error.History in Africa 20: 185–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., and Guenther, M. (1995). Errors corrected or compounded? A reply to Wilmsen.Current Anthropology 36: 298–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemonnier, P. (1986). The study of material culture today: Toward an anthropology of technical systems.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5: 147–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemmonier, P. (1992). Elements for an anthropology of technology.Anthropological Papers 88. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy-Luxereau, A. (1983). Métallurgie dans le Sahel Nigérien: contraintes de l'écosystème, effets de la technique. L'exemple de la region de Maradi (Niger).Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 225–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Williams, D. (1981).Believing and Seeing: Symbolic Meanings in Southern San Rock Art, Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Williams, D. (1983).The Rock Art of Southern Africa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Williams, D. (1984). Ideological continuities in prehistoric southern Africa: The evidence of rock art. In Schrire, C. (ed.),Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, pp. 225–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, I. (1985). Rock-shelter use today: An indicator of Usandawe prehistory. In Bellwood, P., and Misra, V. N. (eds.),Recent Advances in Inch-Pacific prehistory, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, pp. 105–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, I. (1989). Time perspective: A look at contemporary use of rockshelters in Usandawe, Tanzania. In MacEachern, S., Garvin, R., and Archer, D. (eds.),Households and Communities: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Chacmool, the Archaeological Association of the University of Calgary, Calgary, pp. 505–516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lupo, K. (1995). Hadza bone assemblages and hyena attrition: an ethnographic example of the influence of cooking and mode of discard on the intensity of scavenger ravaging.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 288–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, D. (1989). Deliver us from evil: Protective materials used in witchcraft and sorcery confrontation by the Mura of Doulo, northern Cameroon. In Tkaczuk, C. and Vivian, B. (eds.),Cultures In Conflict: Current Archaeological Perspectives, Chacmool, the Archaeological Association of the University of Calgary, Calgary, pp. 297–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, D. (1992).Men's Houses: Women's Spaces. An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Gender and Household Design in Dela, North Cameroon, Ph.D. dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacEachern, S. (1990).Du Kunde: Processes of Montagnard Ethnogenesis in the Northern Mandara Mountains of Cameroon, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Calgary, Calgary.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacEachern, S. (1992). Ethnicity and stylistic variation around Mayo Plata, northern Cameroon. In Sterner, J., and David, N. (eds.),An African Commitment: Papers in Honour of P.L. Shinnie, University of Calgary Press, Calgary, pp. 211–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacEachern, S. (1994). “Symbolic reservoirs” and inter-group relations: West African examples.African Archaeological Review 12: 205–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacEachern, S. (1995). Iron Age beginnings north of the Mandara Mountains, Cameroon and Nigeria. Paper presented at the Tenth Pan-African Congress, Harare.

  • MacEachern, S. (1996). State formation and enslavement in northern Cameroon and northeastern Nigeria. In DeCorse, C. (ed.),West Africa During the Slave Trade: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mack, John. (1982). Material culture and ethnic identity in southeastern Sudan. In Mack, J., and Robertshaw, P. (eds.), Culture history in the Southern Sudan.Memoir of the British Institute in Eastern Africa 8: 111–130.

  • Marshall, F. (1994). Food sharing and body part representation in Okiek faunal assemblages.Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 65–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mauny, R. (1961).Tableau Geographique de l'Ouest Africain au Moyen Age, d'Après les Sources Ecrites, la Tradition et l'Archéologie, IFAN, Dakar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayor, A. (1995). Hamdallahi, capital of the Fulani empire of Macina (Mali): from excavations to interpretations with pluridisciplinarity. Paper presented at the Tenth Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Related Studies, Harare.

  • Mbae, N. (1990). Pastoral Maasai site types, function and refuse organization. Paper presented at the Eleventh Biennial Meetings of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, Gainesville, FL.

  • McIntosh, R. (1974). Archaeology and mud wall decay in a West African village.World Archaeology 6: 154–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, R. (1976). Square huts in round concepts: Prediction of settlement features in West Africa.Archaeology 29: 92–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, S. (ed.) (1995),Excavations at Jenne-Jeno, University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, S., and McIntosh, R. (1980). Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali: A Study in the Development of Urbanism in the Sahel,Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 2, BAR, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, P. (1988).The Monde Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power and Art in West Africa. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Misago, K., and Shimbusho, G. (1992). Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological research in the zones of Rutshuru and Masisi in Northern Kivu.Nyame Akuma 38: 66–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monino, Y. (1983). Accoucher du fer. La metallurgie gbaya (Centrafrique).Memoires de la Société des Africanistes 9: 281–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, H. (1982). The interpretation of spatial patterning in settlement residues. In Hodder, I. (ed.),Symbolic and Structural Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 74–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, H. (1986).Space, Text and Gender. An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, H. (1987). Problems in the analysis of social change: an example from the Marakwet. In Hodder, I. (ed.),Archaeology as Long-Term History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 85–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. G. (1986). Khoi and San craniology: A re-evaluation of the osteological reference samples. In Singer, R., and Lundy, J. (eds.),Variation, Culture and Evolution in African Populations, Witwaterstrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp. 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. G. (1987). The reflection of the collector: San and Khoi skeletons in museum collections.South African Archaeological Bulletin 42: 12–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musa Muhammed, I. (1993a). Iron technology in the middle Sahel/Savanna: With emphasis on central Darfur. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B. W., and Okpoko, A. (eds.),The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, New York, pp. 459–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musa Muhammed, I (1993b). Traditional iron technology and settlement patterns in Central Darfur. In Holl, A., and Levy, T. E. (eds.), Spatial boundaries and social dynamics: Case studies from food-producing societies,International Monographs in Prehistory Ethnoarchaeological Series 2: 83–94.

  • Murdock, G. (1959).Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Netting, R. (1968).Hill Farmers of Nigeria, University of Washington Press, Seattle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicoud, C. (1992). Habitats littoraux présents et passés: confrontation entre un modèle ethnoarcheologique et une analyse de site archéologique. In Audouze, F. (ed.), Ethnoarchéologie: Justification, Problèmes, Limites.Rencontres Internationales d'Archeologie et d'Histoire d'Antibes 12: 239–256.

  • O'Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., and Blurton Jones, N. (1988a). Hadza hunting, butchering, and bone transport and their archaeological implications.Journal of Anthropological Research 44: 113–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., and Blurton Jones, N. (1988b). Hadza scavenging: Implications for Plio-Pleistocene hominid subsistence.Current Anthropology,29: 356–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., and Blurton-Jones, N. G. (1992). Patterns in the distribution, site structure and assemblage composition of Hadza kill-butchering sites.Journal of Archaeological Science 19: 319–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okafor, E. (1989). Eguru Anube Malla Orba: Blacksmith clan among the Orba.Nyame Akuma 32: 24–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okoro, J. A. (1992). Blacksmithing rituals and traditions in northern Ghana. In Goldsmith, S., Garvie, S., and Selin, S. (eds.),Ancient Images, Ancient Thought: The Archaeology of Ideology, Chacmool, Archaeological Association of the University of Calgary, Calgary, pp. 273–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okpoko, A. I. (1987). Pottery-making in Igboland, eastern Nigeria: An ethnoarchaeological study.Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 53: 445–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okpoko, A. I. (1989). Use of ethnography in archaeological investigations.West African Journal of Archaeology 19: 65–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oluwole, O. S. (1991). Aspects of Tiv pottery: Present and past.African Study Monographs 12: 119–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orme, B. (1974). Twentieth-century prehistorians and the idea of ethnographic parallels.Man 9: 199–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ossah-Mvondo, J. (1995). Ancient iron metallurgy in southern Cameroon: A contribution of ethnoarchaeology. Paper presented at the Tenth Pan-African Congress, Harare.

  • Parkington, J., and Mills, G. (1991). From space to place: The architecture and social organization of Southern African mobile communities. In Gamble, C., and Boismier, W. (eds.), Ethnoarchaeological Approaches to Mobile Campsites,International Monographs in Prehistory, Ethnoarchaeological Series 1: 355–370.

  • Parkington, J., Yates, J., Manhire, A., and Halkett, D. (1986). The social impact of pastoralism in the southwestern Cape.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5: 313–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penning, W. (1898). Exhibition of stone implements from South Africa.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 28: 54–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pétrequin, P., and Pétrequin, A.-M. (1984).Habitat Lacustre du Benin: Une Approche Ethnoarchéologiue, Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pole, L. (1975). Iron-working apparatus and techniques: Upper Region of Ghana.West African Journal of Archaeology 5: 11–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnansky, M. (1971). Ghana and the origins of West African trade.African Quarterly 11: 110–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnansky, M. (1973). Aspects of early West African trade.World Archaeology 5: 149–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnansky, M. (1975). Archaeology, technology and African civilization.Journal of African Studies 2: 24–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnansky, M. (1981). Notse town wall survey.Nyame Akuma 18: 56–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posnansky, M. (1984). Ethnoarchaeology of farm shelters at Hani, Ghana.AnthroQuest 30: 11–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. (1985). Scratches on the face of the country.Critical Enquiry 12: 119–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prins, F., and Hall, S. (1994). Expressions of fertility in the rock art of Bantu-speaking agriculturalists.African Archaeological Review 12: 171–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quarcoopome, N. O. (1993). Notse's ancient kingship: Some archaeological and art-historical considerations.African Archaeological Review 11: 109–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raab, L., and Goodyear, A. (1984). Middle-range theory in archaeology: A critical review of origins and applications.American Antiquity 49: 255–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehder, J. E. (1986). Use of preheated air in primitive furnaces: Comment on the views of Avery and Schmidt.Journal of Field Archaeology 13: 351–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, A., and Njau, J. (1994). Archaeological research in Karagwe District.Nyame Akuma 41: 68–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renne, E. (1995).Cloth That Does Not Die: The Meaning of Cloth in Bunu Social Life, University of Washington Press, Seattle.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, L. (1980). Lopoy and Lothagam,Publications of the Museum, Anthropological Series 3 (nos. 1 and 2), Michigan State University, East Lansing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertshaw, P. (1990).A History of African Archaeology, Heinemann, Portsmouth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertshaw, P., and Kamuhangire, E. (1995). The past in the present: Archaeological sites, oral traditions, shrines and politics in Uganda. Paper presented at the Tenth Pan-African Congress for Prehistory and Related Studies, Harare.

  • Roux, V. (1985). Le matériel de broyage: Étude éthnoarchéologique à Tichitt, Mauretanie.Etudes et Recherches sur les. Civilisations Mémoire No. 58, Paris.

  • Roux, V. (1992). Ethnoarchéologie experimentale: de nouveaux perspectives. In Audouze, F. (ed.), Ethnoarcheologie: Justification, problèmes, limites.Rencontres Internationales d'Archéologie et d'Histoire d'Antibes 12: 45–56.

  • Rowlands, M., and Wamier, J. P. (1993). The magical production of iron in the Cameroon Grassfields. In Shaw, T., Sinclair, P., Andah, B. W., and Okpoko, A. (eds.),The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 512–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sackett, J. (1977). The meaning of style in archaeology.American Antiquity 42: 369–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sackett, J. (1990). Style and ethnicity in archaeology: The case for isochrestism. In Conkey, M. and Hastorf, C. (eds.),The Uses of Style in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 32–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saetersdal, T. (1995). Mask of power and transformation—or curio article—or both? An ethnoarchaeological study among the Maconde carvers of Tanzania. Paper presented at the Tenth Congress of the Pan-African Association, Harare.

  • Sampson, C. G. (1974).The Stone Age Archaeology of Southern Africa, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, C. G. (1988).Stylistic Boundaries Among Mobile Hunter-Foragers. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sargent, C. F., and Friedel, D. A. (1986). From clay to metal: Culture change and container usage among the Bariba of northern Benin, West Africa.African Archaeological Review 4: 177–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiffer, M. (1978). Methodological issues in ethnoarchaeology. In Gould, R. (ed.),Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 229–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, P. (1978).Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, P. (1980). Steel production in prehistoric Africa: Insights from ethnoarchaeology in West Lake, Tanzania. In Leakey, R., and Ogot, B. (eds.),Proceedings of the Eighth Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute, Nairobi, pp. 335–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, P. (1983). An alternative to a strictly materialist perspective: A review of historical archaeology, ethnoarchaeology and symbolic approaches in African archaeology.American Antiquity 48: 62–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, P., and Avery, D. (1983) More evidence for an advanced prehistoric iron technology in Africa.Journal of Field Archaeology 10: 421–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schrire, C. (1980). An enquiry into the evolutionary status and apparent identity of San hunter-gatherers.Human Ecology 8: 9–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, T. (1989). African archaeology: Looking back and looking forward.African Archaeological Review 7: 3–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shott, M. (1991). Archaeological implications of revisionism in ethnography. In Miracle, P., Fisher, L., and Brown, J. (eds.), Foragers in Context: Long-Term, Regional and Historical Perspectives in Hunter-Gatherer Studies,Michigan Discussions in Anthropology 10, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 31–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A., and David, N. (1995). The production of space and the house of Xidi Sukur.Current Anthropology 36: 441–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. (1980). The environmental adaptation of nomads in the West African Sahel: Key to understanding prehistoric pastoralists. In Williams, M., and Faure, H. (eds.),The Sahara and the Nile: Quaternary Environments and Prehistoric Occupation in Northern Africa, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 467–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, A. (1992). Gender, representation and power in San ethnography and rock art.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 11: 291–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solway, J., and Lee, R. (1990). Foragers, genuine or spurious: Situating the Kalahari San in history.Current Anthropology 31: 109–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southall, A. (1970). The illusion of tribe. In Gutkind, P. C. W. (ed.),The Passing of Tribal Man in Africa, Leiden, Brill, pp. 28–50.

  • Stahl, A. (1993). Concepts of time and approaches to analogical reasoning in historical perspective.American Antiquity 58: 235–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stahl, A. (1994). Change and continuity in the Banda area, Ghana: the direct historical approach.Journal of Field Archaeology 21(2): 181–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterner, J. (1989). Who is signalling whom? Ceramic style, ethnicity and taphonomy among the Sirak Bulahay.Antiquity. 63: 451–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterner, J., and David, N. (1996). Transformers transformed: Aspects of caste and iron technology in the Mandara mountains. In Fowler, I. (ed.),Transformations, Technology and Gender in African Metallurgy (in press).

  • Stewart, K., and Gifford-Gonzalez, D. (1994). Ethnoarchaeological contribution to identifying hominid fish processing sites.Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 237–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1977). Ethnoarchaeology: A discussion of methods and applications.Man 12: 87–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1979). An ethnoarchaeological study with the Boni, eastern Kenya.Nyame Akuma 15: 29–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1980). Archaeological and ethnographic studies of pastoral groups in northern Kenya.Nyame Akuma 17: 20–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1981). An diachronic study of the demography, human ecology and history of pastoral groups in northern Kenya.Nyame Akuma 18: 14–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1982). A history of the hunting people of the northern East African coast.Paideuma 28: 165–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1991). Tubers and tenrecs: The Mikea of southwestern Madagascar.Ethnology 30: 251–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles, D. (1994). Of evolutionary ecology and cultural realities.Current Anthropology 35: 438–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, G. (1988).Agrarian Ecology and Settlement Patterns: An Ethnoarchaeological Case Study, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, G. (1992). Social distance, spatial relations and agricultural production among the Kofyar of Namu District, Plateau State, Nigeria.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 11: 152–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, G. (1994). Agricultural intensification and perimetrics: Ethnoarchaeological evidence from Nigeria.Current Anthropology 35: 317–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, G., Netting, R., and Stone, P. (1990). Seasonally, labor scheduling and agricultural intensification in the Nigerian savanna.American Anthropologist 92: 7–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanno, T. (1976). The Mbuti net hunters in the Ituri Forest, eastern Zaire: Their hunting activities and band composition.Kyoto University African Studies 10: 101–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terashima, H. (1983). Mota and other hunting activities of the Mbuti archers: A socio-ecological study of subsistence technology.African Studies Monographs 3: 71–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terashima, H. (1986). Economic exchange and the symbiotic relationship between the Mbuti (Efe) Pygmies and the surrounding farmers.Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 7(1): 391–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, E. (1959).The Harmless People, Knopf, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Todd, J. A. (1985). Iron production by the Dimi of Ethiopia. In Haaland, R., and Shinnie, P. L. (eds.),African Iron Working: Ancient and Traditional, Universitetsforlaget AS, Oslo, pp. 88–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tringham, R. (1978). Experimentation, ethnoarchaeology, and the leapfrogs in archaeological methodology. In Gould, R. (ed.),Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, pp. 169–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, C. (1962).The Forest People, Simon and Schuster, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, C. (1965).Wayward Servants: The Two Worlds of the African Pygmies, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, C. (1968). The importance of flux in two hunting societies. In Lee, R., and DeVore I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, C. (1972).The Mountain People, Simon and Schuster, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, C. (1983).The Mbuti Pygmies: Change and Adaptation, Holt Rinehart Winston, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vail, L. (1989). Introduction: Ethnicity in southern African history. In Vail, L. (ed.),The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, pp. 9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Beek, W. (1991). Dogon revisited: A field evaluation of the work of Marcel Griaule.Current Anthropology 32: 139–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe, N. (1980). Production of high carbon steel in the African Iron Age: the direct steel process. In Leakey, R., and Ogot, B. (eds.),Proceedings of the 8th Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, September 1977, International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute, Nairobi, pp. 331–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe, N. (1983). Iron smelting by induced draft in Malawi.Nyame Akuma 23: 16.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe, N., and Avery, D. (1982). Pathways to steel.American Scientist 70: 146–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe, N. J., and Avery, D. H. (1987). Science and magic in African technology: Traditional smelting in Malawi. In Maddin, R. (ed.),The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 245–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Merwe, N., and Scully, R. (1971). The Phalaborwa story: archaeological and ethnographic investigation of a South African Iron Age group.World Archaeology 3: 278–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Post, L. (1958).The Lost World of the Kalahari, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Noten, F. (1982).The Archaeology of Central Africa, Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vansina, J. (1990).Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincent, A. (1985). Plant foods in savanna environments: A preliminary report of tubers eaten by the Hadza of northern Tanzania.World Archaeology 17(2): 131–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldron, S. (1987). Weighted digging sticks in Ethiopia.South African Archaeological Bulletin 42(145): 69–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wandibba, S. (1990). Ancient and modern ceramic traditions in the Lake Victoria basin of Kenya.Azania 25: 69–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wente-Lukas, R. (1977).Die materielle Kultur der nicht-Islamischen Ethnien von Nordkamerun und Nordostnigeria, Studien zur Kulturkunde 43, Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (1983). Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points.American Antiquity 48: 253–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (1984). Reconsidering the behavioral basis for style: A case study among the Kalahari San.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3: 190–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (1990). Is there a unity to style? In Conkey, M., and Hastorf, C. (eds.),The Uses of Style in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 105–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett, F., and Connah, G. (1969). Pottery making in the village of use near Benin City, Nigeria.Baessler-Archiv 17: 133–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, S. (1987). An “archaeology” of Turkana beads. In Hodder, I. (ed.),The Archaeology of Contextual Meanings, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 31–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilmsen, E. (1989).Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari, Chicago University Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilmsen, E. (1993). On the search for (truth) and authority: A reply to Lee and Guenther.Current Anthropology 34: 715–721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilmsen, E., and Denbow, J. (1990). Paradigmatic history of Khoisan-speaking people and current attempts at revision.Current Anthropology 31: 489–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M. (1986). Khoisanosis: The question of separate identities for Khoi and San. In Singer, R., and Lundy, J. (eds.),Variation, Culture and Evolution in African Populations, Witwaterstrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp. 13–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobst, M. (1977). Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In Cleland, C. (ed.),For the Director Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Occasional Papers, Ann Arbor, pp. 317–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, J. (1968). An introduction to Hadza ecology. In Lee, R., and DeVore, I. (eds.),Man the Hunter, Aldine-Atherton, Chicago, pp. 49–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, J. (1970).Hunters and Gatherers. The Material Culture of the Nomadic Hadza, British Museum, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, J. (1972). Ecology, nomadic movement and the composition of the local group among hunters and gatherers: An East African example and its implication. In Ucko, P., Tringham, R., and Dimbleby, G. (eds),Man, Settlement and Urbanism, Duckworth, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, J. (1980). Hunters and gatherers today and reconstruction of the past. In Gellner, E. (ed.),Soviet and Western Anthropology, Duckworth, London, pp. 95–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodburn, J. (1988). African hunter-gatherer social organization: Is it best understood as a product of encapsulation? In Ingold, T., Riches, D., and Woodburn, J. (eds),Hunters and Gatherers Today (Vol. 1): History, Evolution and Social Change, Berg, Oxford, pp. 31–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellen, J. (1977).Archaeological Approaches to the Present, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellen, J. (1984). The integration of herding into prehistoric hunting and gathering economies. In Hall, M. (ed.),Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp. 53–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellen, J. (1989). The present and the future of hunter-gatherer studies. In Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. (ed.),Archaeological Thought in America, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 103–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellen, J. (1991). Small mammals: Post-discard patterning of !Kung San faunal remains.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19: 152–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellen, J., and Harpending, H. (1972). Hunter-gatherer populations and archaeological inference.World Archaeology 4: 244–253.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

MacEachern, S. Foreign countries: The development of ethnoarchaeology in sub-Saharan Africa. J World Prehist 10, 243–304 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02286418

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02286418

Key words

Navigation