Skip to main content
Log in

Poor readers in secondary school

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A follow-up of a representative sample of poor readers through secondary schooling confirmed persisting reading problems for most children. As a group, poor readers fell further behind a normal-reading comparison group during their early teens. Later reading progress was unrelated to gender, SES background, behavior problems or non-school attendance, though these factors did influence wider school attainments. Poor readers were more likely to leave school early, and had much depressed educational qualifications. There were no differences in the reading progress or academic attainments of specifically retarded (IQ-discrepant) and generally backward poor readers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Badian, N. A. (1988). The prediction of good and poor reading before Kindergarten entry: A nine-year follow-up,Journal of Learning Disabilities 21: 98–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badian, N. A. (1990). Background factors and preschool test scores as predictors of reading: a nine-year longitudinal study,Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 2: 307–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, M., Yule, W. & Rutter, M. (1975). Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas II: The prevalence of specific reading retardation,British Journal of Psychiatry 126: 510–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M. (1985). The adult functioning of children with specific learning disability: A follow-up study. In: L. Siegel (ed.),Advances in applied developmental psychology (pp. 91–129). Norwood NJ: Ablex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M. (1992). Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness deficits,Developmental Psychology 28: 874–886.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byford, D. & Mortimore, P. (1980).School Examination Results in the ILEA, 1978 RS 759/80. Inner London Education Authority.

  • Clay, M. (1985).The early detection of reading difficulties, 3rd Ed. Tadworth, Surrey: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, T. D. & Campbell, D. T. (1979).Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C. (1988). Colorado Reading Project: longitudinal analyses,Annals of Dyslexia 38: 120–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C. & Baker, L. A. (1983). Colorado Family Reading Study: Longitudinal analyses,Annals of Dyslexia 33: 153–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M. & Horwood, L. J. (1992). Attention deficit and reading achievement,Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 33: 375–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finucci, J. M. (1986). Follow-up studies of developmental dyslexia and other learning disabilities. In: S. D. Smith (ed.),Genetics and learning disabilities (pp. 97–121). Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finucci, J. M. Gottfredson, L. S. & Childs, B. (1985). A follow-up study of dyslexic boys,Annals of Dyslexia 35: 117–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forell, E. R. & Hood, J. (1985). A longitudinal study of two groups of children with early reading problems,Annals of Dyslexia 35: 97–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredman. G. & Stevenson, J. (1988). Reading processes in specific reading retarded and reading backward 13 year olds,British Journal of Developmental Psychology 6: 67–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, R., Belmont, I. & Kaminer, R. (1975). Admission and follow-up status of reading disabled children referred to a medical clinic,Journal of Learning Disabilities 8: 642–650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms,Psychological Bulletin 111: 127–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jorm, A. F., Share, D. L., Matthews, R. & Maclean, R. (1986). Behaviour problems in specific reading retarded and general reading backward children: A longitudinal study,Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 27: 33–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavale, K. A. (1988). The long-term consequences of learning disabilities. In: M. C. Wang, M. C. Reynolds & H. J. Walberg (eds.),Handbook of Special Education (pp. 303–344). Oxford: Pergmon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, C. & Kline, C. (1975). Follow-up study of 211 dyslexic children,Bulletin of the Orton Society 25: 127–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaBuda, M. C. & DeFries, J. C. (1988). Cognitive abilities in children with reading disabilities and controls: A follow-up study,Journal of Learning Disabilities 21: 562–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaBuda, M. C. & DeFries, J. C. (1989). Differential prognosis of reading-disabled children as a function of gender, socioeconomic status, IQ and severity: A longitudinal study,Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1: 25–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMichael, P. (1979). The hen or the egg? Which came first — antisocial emotional disorder or reading disability?,British Journal of Educational Psychology 49: 226–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, B. (1989). Growing up in the inner city: Findings from the inner London longitudinal study,Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 3: 195–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, B., Gray, G. & Rutter, M. (1985). Reading retardation and antisocial behaviour: A follow-up into employment,Journal of Children Psychology and Psychiatry 26: 741–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muehl, S. & Forell, E. R (1973). A follow-up study of disabled readers: Variables related to high school reading performance,Reading Research Quarterly 9: 110–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • NFER (1970).Manual of Instructions: Sentence Reading Tests. Windsor: National Foundation for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neale, M. D. (1958).Neale Analysis of Reading Ability Manual. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor, C. E., Felton, R. H. & Wood, F. B. (1990). Adult outcome in developmental dyslexia. In: G. Th. Pavlidis (ed.),Perspectives on dyslexia, Vol 2 (pp. 215–229) London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Connor, S. & Spreen, O. (1988). The relationship between parents' socioeconomic status and education level and adult occupational and educational achievement of children with learning disabilities,Journal of Learning Disabilities 21: 148–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., Gilger, J. W., Olson, R. K. & DeFries, J. C. (1992). The external validity of age- versus IQ-discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Lessons from a twin study,Journal of Learning Disabilities 25: 562–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plewis, I. (1985).Analyzing change: Measurement and explanation using longitudinal data. Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raz, I. S. & Bryant, P. (1990). Social background, phonological awareness and children's reading,British Journal of Developmental Psychology 8: 209–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, B. (1983). The identification and prevalence of specific reading retardation,British Journal of Educational Psychology 53: 369–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, K. J. & Rowe, K. S. (1992). The relationship between inattentiveness in the classroom and reading achievement (part B): An exploratory study,Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31: 357–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Cox, A., Tupling, C., Berger, M. & Yule, W. (1975). Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas-I. The prevalence of psychiatric disorder,British Journal of Psychiatry 126: 493–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P. & Ouston, J. (1979).Fifteen thousand hours: Secondary schools and their effects on children London: Open Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Tizard, J. & Whitmore, K., (eds.) (1970).Education, health and behaviour. London: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Tizard, J., Yule, W., Graham, P. & Whitmore, K. (1976). Isle of Wight studies 1964–1974,Psychological Medicine 6: 313–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satz, P., Taylor, H. G., Friel, J. & Fletcher, J. M. (1978). Some developmental and predictive precursors of reading disabilities: a six-year follow-up. In: A. Benton & D. Pearl (eds.),Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge (pp. 313–349). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M. & Shaywitz, S. E. (1992). Discrepancy compared to low achievement definitions of reading disability: Results from the Connecticut Longitudinal study,Journal of Learning Disabilities 25: 639–648.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M. & Escobar, M. D. (1990). Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: Results of the Connecticut Longitudinal Study,Journal of the American Medical Association 264: 998–1002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schonhaut, S. & Satz, P. (1983). Prognosis for children with learning disabilities: A review of follow-up studies. In: M. Rutter (ed.),Developmental Neuropsychiatry (pp. 542–563). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreen, O. (1987).Learning disabled children growing up: A follow-up into adulthood. Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreen, O. (1988). Prognosis of learning disability,Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56: 836–842.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy,Reading Research Quarterly 21: 360–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (1991). The theoretical and practical consequences of discrepancy definitions of dyslexia. In: M. Snowling & M. Thomson (eds.),Dyslexia: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 125–143). London: Whurr.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson J. & Fredman, G. (1990). The social environmental correlates of reading ability,Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 31: 681–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturge, C. (1982). Reading retardation and antisocial behaviour,Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 23: 21–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Temple, C. (1990). Foop is still Floop: A six year follow-up of phonological dyslexia and dysgraphia,Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 2: 209–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trites, R. L. & Fiedorowicz, C. (1976). Follow-up study of children with specific (or primary) reading disability. In: R. M. Knights & D. J. Bakker (eds.),The neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches (pp. 41–50). Baltimore: University Park Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Wissel, A. & Zegers, F. E. (1985). Reading retardation revisited,British Journal of Developmental Psychology 3: 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1949).Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Manual) New York: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W. (1967). Predicting reading ages on Neale's analysis of reading ability,British Journal of Educational Psychology 37: 252–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W. (1973). Differential prognosis of reading backwardness and specific reading retardation,British Journal of Educational Psychology 43: 244–248.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Maughan, B., Hagell, A., Rutter, M. et al. Poor readers in secondary school. Read Writ 6, 125–150 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01026909

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01026909

Key words

Navigation