Abstract
The effects of small fractions ( < 30%) of open water covering a grid element are currently neglected even in atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) which incorporate complex land surface parameterization schemes. Here, a method for simulating sub-grid scale open water is proposed which permits any existing land surface model to be modified to account for open water. This new parameterization is tested as an addition to an advanced land surface scheme and, as expected, is shown to produce general increases in the surface latent heat flux at the expense of the surface sensible heat flux. Small changes in temperature are associated with this change in the partitioning of available energy which is driven by an increase in the wetness of the grid element. The sensitivity of the land surface to increasing amounts of open water is dependent upon the type of vegetation represented. Dense vegetation (with a high leaf area index) is shown to complicate the apparently simple model sensitivity and indicates that more advanced methods of incorporating open water into AGCMs need to be considered and compared against the parameterization suggested here. However, the sensitivity of one land surface model to incorporating open water is large enough to warrant consideration of its incorporation into climate models.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramopoulos F, Rosenzweig C, Choudhury B (1988) Improved ground hydrology calculations for global climate models (GCMs): soil water movement and evapotranspiration. J Climate 1:921–941
Avissar R, Verstraete MM (1990) The representation of continental surface processes in atmospheric models. Rev Geophys 28:35–52
Brutsaert W (1982) Evaporation into the atmosphere. Theory, history and application. D Reidel, Dordrecht
Carson DJ (1987) An introduction to the parameterization of land-surface processes. Part 2. Soil heat conduction and surface hydrology. Meteorol Mag 116:263–279
Cogley JG (1979) The albedo of water as a function of latitude. Mon Wea Rev 107:775–781
Cogley JG (1987) GGHYDRO - Global hydrographic data, product description, Dept Geography, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7138, Canada
Cogley JG, Pitman AJ, Henderson-Sellers A (1990) A land surface for large scale climate models, Trent University Technical note, 90–1, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7138, Canada
Dickinson RE (1983) Land-surface processes and climate, surface albedos and energy balance. Adv Geophys 25:303–253
Dickinson RE (1984) Modelling evapotranspiration for three dimensional global climate models, In: climate processes and climate sensitivity, eds Hansen JE, Takahashi T Geophys monograph 29 vol 5 Am Geophys Union: 58–72
Dickinson RE, Henderson-Sellers A (1988) Modelling tropical deforestation: a study of GCM land-surface parameterizations. Quart J Roy Meteor Soc 114(b):439–462
Dickinson RE, Henderson-Sellers A, Kennedy PJ, Wilson MF (1986) Biosphere atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) for the NCAR community climate model, NCAR Technical Note, NCAR, TN275 + STR
Grishchenko DL (1959) The dependence of albedo of the sea on the altitude of the sun and distribution of the sea surface. Trans Glav Geofis Observ 80:32–38 [OOENV TR359, Dept Fisheries Environ Ottawa (1973)]
Hansen JE, Russell G, Rind D, Stone PH, Lacis AA, Lebedeff S, Ruedy R, Travis L (1983) Efficient three dimensional global models for climate studies: models I and II. Mon Wea Rev 111:609–662
Henderson-Sellers B (1986) Calculating the surface energy balance for lake and reservoir modeling: A review. Rev Geophys 24:625–649
Henderson-Sellers A, McGuffie K (1987) A climate modelling primer. John Wiley, Chichester, UK
Henderson-Sellers B, Davies AM (1989) Thermal stratification modelling for oceans and lakes. Ann Rev Numerical Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer 2:86–156
Henderson-Sellers A, Wilson MF, Thomas G, Dickinson RE (1986) Current global land surface data sets for use in climate related studies. NCAR tech note TN-272 + STR
Lean J, Warrilow DA (1989) Simulation of the regional climatic impact of Amazon deforestation. Nature 342:411–413
Manabe S (1969) Climate and the ocean circulation: 1, the atmospheric circulation and the hydrology of the Earth's surface. Mon Wea Rev 97:739–805
Oke TR (1978) Boundary layer climates. J Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK
Pitman AJ, Henderson-Sellers A, Yang Z-L (1990) Sensitivity of regional climates to localised precipitation in global models. Nature 346:734–737
Rouse WR, Hardill S, Silis A (1989) Energy balance of the intertidal zone of western Hudson Bay II: ice-dominated periods and seasonal patterns. Atmosphere-Ocean 27:346–366
Sellers PJ, Mintz Y, Sud YC, Dalcher A (1986) A simple biosphere model (SiB) for use within general circulation models. J Atmos Sci 43:505–531
Shukla J, Nobre C, Sellers PJ (1990) Amazon deforestation and climate change. Science 247:1322–1325
Silis A, Rouse WR, Hardill S (1989) Energy balance of the intertidal zone of western Hudson Bay I: ice-free period. Atmosphere-Ocean 27:327–345
Slingo A (ed) (1985) Handbook of the Meteorological Office 11layer atmospheric general circulation model, Volume 1: Model description MET O 20 DCTN 29, Meteorological Office, Bracknell, Berkshire, UK
Taylor PA (1987) Comments and further analysis on effective roughness lengths for use in numerical three-dimensional models. Bound Layer Meteor 39:403–418
Verstraete MM, Dickinson RE (1986) Modeling surface processes in atmospheric general circulation models. Ann Geophys 4:357–364
Washington WM, Parkinson CL (1986) An introduction to threedimensional climate modelling. University Science Books, Mill Valley, California
Wilson MF, Henderson-Sellers A, Dickinson RE, Kennedy PJ (1987) Sensitivity of the biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) to the inclusion of variable soil characteristics. J Clim Appl Meteor 26:341–362
World Weather Records 1941–50 (1957) US Dept Commerce, Superintendent of documents, US Govt Printing Office, Washington, DC
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pitman, A. A simple parameterization of sub-grid scale open water for climate models. Climate Dynamics 6, 99–112 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209983
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209983