Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Tropical air-sea interaction in general circulation models

  • Published:
Climate Dynamics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

An intercomparison is undertaken of the tropical behavior of 17 coupled ocean-atmosphere models in which at least one component may be termed a general circulation model (GCM). The aim is to provide a taxonomy—a description and rough classification—of behavior across the ensemble of models, focusing on interannual variability. The temporal behavior of the sea surface temperature (SST) field along the equator is presented for each model, SST being chosen as the primary variable for intercomparison due to its crucial role in mediating the coupling and because it is a sensitive indicator of climate drift. A wide variety of possible types of behavior are noted among the models. Models with substantial interannual tropical variability may be roughly classified into cases with propagating SST anomalies and cases in which the SST anomalies develop in place. A number of the models also exhibit significant drift with respect to SST climatology. However, there is not a clear relationship between climate drift and the presence or absence of interannual oscillations. In several cases, the mode of climate drift within the tropical Pacific appears to involve coupled feedback mechanisms similar to those responsible for El Niño variability. Implications for coupled-model development and for climate prediction on seasonal to interannual time scales are discussed. Overall, the results indicate considerable sensitivity of the tropical coupled ocean-atmosphere system and suggest that the simulation of the warm-pool/cold-tongue configuration in the equatorial Pacific represents a challenging test for climate model parameterizations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allaart MAF, Kattenberg A (1990) A primitive equation model for the Equatorial Pacific. KNMI Technical Report TR-124

  • Arakawa A, Schubert WH (1974) Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with the large scale environment, Part 1. J Atmos Sci 31:674–701

    Google Scholar 

  • Arakawa A, Lamb VR (1981) A potential enstrophy and energy conserving scheme for the shallow water equations. Mon Wea Rev 109:18–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Arakawa A, Suarez MJ (1983) Vertical differencing of the primitive equations in sigma coordinates. Mon Wea Rev 111:34–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnston AG, Livezey RE (1987) Classification, seasonality and persistence of low-frequency atmospheric circulation patterns. Mon Wea Rev 115:1083–1126

    Google Scholar 

  • Battisti DS (1988) The dynamics and thermodynamics of a warming event in a coupled tropical atmosphere/ocean model. J Atmos Sci 45:2889–2919

    Google Scholar 

  • Battisti DS, Hirst AC (1988) Interannual variability in the tropical atmosphere/ocean system: influence of the basic state and ocean geometry. J Atmos Sci 45:1687–1712

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjerknes J (1969) Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific. Mon Wea Rev 97:163–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryan K, Lewis LJ (1979) A water mass model of the world ocean. J Geophys Res 84(C):2503–2517

    Google Scholar 

  • Busalacchi AJ, O'Brien JJ (1981) Interannual variability of the equatorial Pacific in the 1960s. J Geophys Res 86:10901–10907

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA (1979a) The response of an equatorial ocean to simple wind stress patterns: 1. Model formulation and analytic results. J Marine Res A 37:233–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA (1979b) The response of an equatorial ocean to simple wind stress patterns: II. Numerical results. J Marine Res 37:253–299

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA (1986) El Niño. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 14:43–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA, Sarachik ES (1977) Forced baroclinic ocean motions: II. The linear equatorial bounded case. J Marine Res 35:395–432

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA, Zebiak SE (1985) A theory for El Niño and the Southern Oscillation. Science 228:1084–1087

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA, Zebiak SE, Dolan SC (1986) Experimental forecasts of El Niño. Nature 321:827–832

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane MA, Münnich M, Zebiak SE (1990) A study of self-excited oscillations of the tropical ocean-atmosphere system. Part 1: Linear analysis. J Atmos Sci 47:1562–1577

    Google Scholar 

  • Cess RD, Potter GL, Blanchet JP, Boer GJ, Ghan SJ, Kiehl JT, LeTreut H, Li Z-X, Liang X-Z, Mitchell JFB, Morcrette J-J, Randall DA, Riches MR, Roeckner E, Schlese U, Slingo A, Taylor KE, Washington WM, Wetherald RT, Yagai I (1989) Interpretation of cloud-climate feedback as produced by 14 atmospheric general circulation models. Science 245:513–516

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnock H, Philander SGH (eds) (1989) The dynamics of the coupled atmosphere and ocean. Proceedings of a Royal Society Discussion Meeting. The Royal Society, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao Y (1990) Seasonal and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific Ocean. PhD dissertation, Princeton University, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng M-D, Arakawa A (1991) Inclusion of Convective downdrafts in the Arakawa-Schubert cumulus parameterization. In: Extended abstract volume, 19th Conference on Hurricane and Tropical Meteorology, May 6–10, 1991, Miami, Florida, pp 295–300. American Meteorological Soc, Boston, Mass, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Cubasch U (1985) The mean response of the ECMWF global model to the El Niño anomaly in extended range prediction experiments. Atmosphere-Ocean 23:43–66

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cubasch U, Santer BD, Maier-Reimer E, Böttinger M (1990) Sensitivity of a global coupled ocean atmosphere circulation model to a doubling of carbon dioxide. In: Pitcher EJ (ed) Science and engineering on supercomputers, Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton, pp 347–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Currie RG, Hameed S (1988) Evidence of quasi-biennial oscillations in a general circulation model. Geophys Res Lett 165:649–652

    Google Scholar 

  • Deardorff JW (1972) Parameterization of the planetary boundary layer for use in general circulation models. Mon Wea Rev 100:93–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Deser C, Wallace JM (1990) Large-scale atmospheric circulation features of warm and cold episodes in the tropical Pacific. J Climate 3:1254–1281

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellingson RG, Fouquart Y (1990) The intercomparison of radiation codes in climate models. World Meteorological Organization, Technical Document No. 371, WCRP-39, World Climate Research Programme, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Endoh M, Tokioka T, Nagai T (1991) Tropical Pacific sea surface temperature variations in a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. J Marine Systems 1:293–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer G (ed) (1987) Climate simulations with the ECMWF T21 model in Hamburg. Large scale atmospheric modelling Report No. 1, Meteorologisches Institut der Universität Hamburg, FRG

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates WL, Han YJ, Schlesinger ME (1985) The global climate simulated by a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model: preliminary results. In: Nihoul JCJ (ed) Coupled ocean-atmosphere models. Elsevier Oceanogr Ser 40, pp 131–151

  • Gent PR (1991) The heat budget of the TOGA-COARE domain in an ocean model. J Geophys Res 96:3323–3330

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gent PR, Cane MA (1989) A reduced gravity, primitive equation model of the upper equatorial ocean. J Computational Phys 81:444–480

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghan SJ, Lingaas JW, Schlesinger ME, Mobley RL, Gates WL (1982) A documentation of the OSU two-level atmospheric model. Report 35, Climatic Research Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghil M, Vautard R (1991) Interdecadal oscillations and the warming trend in global temperature time series. Nature 350:324–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill AE (1980) Some simple solutions for heat induced tropical circulation. Quart J Roy Met Soc 106:447–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill AE, Rasmusson EM (1983) The 1982–1983 climate anomaly in the equatorial Pacific. Nature 306:229–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg SB, O'Brien JJ (1981) Time and space variability of tropical Pacific wind stress. Mon Wea Rev 109:1190–1207

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon C (1989a) Comparison of surface fluxes in the tropical Pacific Ocean derived from an atmospheric GCM and from climatology. Tropical Ocean-Atmosphere Newsletter No. 51

  • Gordon C (1989b) Tropical ocean-atmosphere interactions in a coupled model. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond A329:207–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon C, Corry RA (1991) An ocean model simulation of the seasonal cycle in the Tropical Pacific Ocean using climatological and modelled surface forcing. J Geophys Res 96C:847–864

    Google Scholar 

  • Goswami BN, Shukla J (1991) Predictability of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J Climate 4:3–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham NE, Barnett TP (1987) Sea surface temperature, surface wind divergence, and convection over tropical oceans. Science 238:657–659

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutzler DS, Wood TM (1990) Structure of large-scale convective anomalies over tropical oceans. J Climate 3:483–496

    Google Scholar 

  • Hameed S, Pittalwala I (1991) The North Pacific oscillation: observations compared with simulation in a general circulation model. Clim Dyn (in press)

  • Hameed S, Sperber KR, Cess RD (1989) Genesis of the Southern Oscillation within the atmosphere: illustration with general circulation models. Geophys Res Lett 16:691–694

    Google Scholar 

  • Han YJ (1984a) A numerical world ocean general circulation model, Part I. Basic design and barotropic experiment. Dyn Atmos Ocean 8:107–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Han YJ (1984b) A numerical world ocean general circulation model, Part II. A baroclinic experiment. Dyn Atmos Oceans 8:141–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Harshvardhan, Davies R, Randall DA, Corsetti TG (1987) A fast radiation parameterization for general circulation models. J Geophys Res 92:1009–1016

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellerman S, Rosenstein M (1983) Normal monthly wind stress over the world ocean with error estimates. J Phys Oceanogr 13:1093–1104

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirst AC (1986) Unstable and damped equatorial modes in simple coupled ocean-atmosphere models. J Atmos Sci 43:606–630

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirst AC (1988) Slow instabilities in tropical ocean basin-global atmosphere models. J Atmos Sci 45:830–852

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirst AC (1990) On simple coupled ocean-atmosphere models, equatorial instabilities and ENSO. Proc Int TOGA Scientific Conference, World Meteorological Organization, Technical Document No. 379, WCRP-43, World Climate Research Programme, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Horel JD (1982) The annual cycle in the tropical Pacific atmosphere and ocean. Mon Wea Rev 110:1863–1878

    Google Scholar 

  • Ineson S, Gordon C (1989) Parameterization of the upper ocean mixed layer in a tropical ocean GCM. Dynamical Climatology Technical Note No. 74, UK Meteorological Office

  • Katayama A (1972) A simplified scheme for computing radiative transfer in the troposphere. Tech Rep No. 6, Dept Meteor, University of California, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  • Kattenberg A, Allaart MAF (1989) The effect of salinity on a tropical Pacific Ocean model. Ocean Modelling 83:2–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Latif M (1987) Tropical ocean circulation experiments. J Phys Oceanogr 17:246–263

    Google Scholar 

  • Latif M, Biercamp J, von Storch H (1988a) The response of a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model to wind bursts. J Atmos Sci 45:964–979

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latif M, Biercamp J, von Storch H, Zwiers FW (1988b) A ten year climate simulation with a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model. Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, Report No. 21, Bundesstrasse 55, D-2000 Hamburg 13, FRG

  • Latif M, Biercamp J, von Storch M, McPhaden MJ, Kirk E (1990) Simulation of surface wind anomalies with an AGCM forced by observed SST. J Climate 5:509–521

    Google Scholar 

  • Latif M, Villwock A (1990) Interannual variability as simulated in coupled ocean-atmosphere models. J Marine Systems 1:51–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau KM, Sheu PJ (1988) Annual cycle, quasi-biennial oscillation and Southern Oscillation in global precipitation. J Geophys Res 93:10975–10988

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau NC (1985) Modelling the seasonal dependence of the atmospheric response to observed El Niños in 1962–76. Mon Wea Rev 113:1970–1996

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau NC, Philander SGH, Nath MJ (1992) Simulation of ENSO-like phenomena with a low-resolution coupled GCM of the global ocean and atmosphere. J Climate (in press)

  • Levitus S (1982) Climatological atlas of the world ocean. NOAA Professional Paper Nr. 13, US Govt Printing Office, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindzen RS, Nigam S (1987) On the role of sea surface temperature gradients in forcing low level winds and convergence in the tropics. J Atmos Sci 44:2418–2436

    Google Scholar 

  • van Loon H (1984) The Southern Oscillation. Part III: associations with the trades and with the trough in the westerlies of the South Pacific Ocean. Mon Wea Rev 112:947–954

    Google Scholar 

  • Louis JF (ed) ECMWF forecast model. Meteorological Bulletin, ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading, UK

  • Maier-Reimer E, Hasselmann K, Olbers D, Willebrand J (1982) An ocean circulation model for climate studies. Tech Rep, MPI für Meteorologie, Hamburg, FRG

    Google Scholar 

  • Manabe S, Hahn DG (1981) Simulation of atmospheric variability. Mon Wea Rev 109:2260–2286

    Google Scholar 

  • Manabe S, Stouffer RJ (1988) Two stable equilibria of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J Climate 1:841–866

    Google Scholar 

  • McCreary JP (1976) Eastern tropical ocean response to changing wind systems with application to El Niño. J Phys Oceanogr 6:632–645

    Google Scholar 

  • McCreary JP, Anderson DLT (1991) An overview of coupled ocean-atmosphere models of El Niño and the Southern Oscillation. J Geophys Res 96:3125–3150

    Google Scholar 

  • Mechoso CR, Kitoh A, Moorthi S, Arakawa A (1987) Numerical simulations of the atmospheric response to a sea surface temperature anomaly over the equatorial eastern Pacific ocean. Mon Wea Rev 115:2936–2956

    Google Scholar 

  • Mechoso CR, Fisher M, Ghil M, Halpern M, Spahr M (1990) Coupling experiments of an atmospheric and an oceanic GCM. Proc Int TOGA Scientific Conference, World Meteorological Organization, Technical Document No. 379, WCRP43, World Climate Research Programme, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA (1989) The coupled ocean-atmosphere modeling in the tropical Pacific and Asian monsoon region. J Climate 2:1146–1163

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA (1990a) Seasonal cycle forcing of El Niño-Southern Oscillation in a global coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM. J Climate 3:72–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA (1990b) Development of global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models. Clim Dyn 5:19–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA, Washington WM (1985) Sea surface temperatures computed by a simple ocean mixed layer coupled to an atmospheric model. J Phys Oceanogr 15:92–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA, Washington WM (1988) A comparison of soil moisture sensitivity in two global climate models. J Atmos Sci 45:1476–1492

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA, Washington WM (1990) CO2 climate sensitivity and snow-sea-ice albedo parameterization in an atmospheric GCM coupled to a mixed-layer ocean model. Climatic Change 16:283–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Meehl GA, Washington WM, Semtner AJ Jr (1982) Experiments with a global ocean model driven by observed atmospheric forcing. J Phys Oceanogr 12:301–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellor GL, Yamada T (1974) A hierarchy of turbulence closure models for planetary boundary layers. J Atmos Sci 31:1791–1806

    Google Scholar 

  • Neelin JD (1988) A simple model for surface stress and low-level flow in the tropical atmosphere driven by prescribed heating. Quart J Roy Met Soc 114:747–770

    Google Scholar 

  • Neelin JD (1989) Interannual oscillations in an ocean general circulation model coupled to a simple atmosphere model. Phil Trans R Soc Lond 329A:189–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Neelin JD (1990) A hybrid coupled general circulation model for El Niño studies. J Atmos Sci 47:674–693

    Google Scholar 

  • Neelin JD (1991) The slow sea surface temperature mode and the fast-wave limit: Analytic theory for tropical interannual oscillations and experiments in a hybrid coupled model. J Atmos Sci 48:584–606

    Google Scholar 

  • Neelin JD, Held IM (1987) Modelling tropical convergence based on the moist static energy budget. Mon Wea Rev 115:3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Nihoul JCJ (ed) (1985) Coupled ocean-atmosphere models. Elsevier Oceanography Series, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Nihoul JCJ, Jamart B (eds) (1990) Coupled ocean-atmosphere modeling. J Marine Syst I (special issue)

  • Niiler PP, Kraus EB (1977) One-dimensional models of the upper ocean. In: Kraus EB (ed) Modelling and prediction of the upper layers of the ocean. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 143–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Opsteegh JD, Murau R (1984) Description of a 15 layer steady state atmospheric model. University of Maryland Dept. of Meteorology Report No. SR-84-19

  • Pacanowski RC, Philander SGH (1981) Parameterization of vertical mixing in numerical models of the tropical oceans. J Phys Oceanogr 11:1443–1451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer TN, Mansfield DA (1986) A study of wintertime circulation anomalies during past El Niño events using a high-resolution general circulation model. I: influence of model climatology. Quart J Roy Meteor Soc 112:613–638

    Google Scholar 

  • Pan YH, Oort AH (1991) Correlation analyses between sea surface temperature anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific and the world ocean. Chin Dyn 4:191–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH (1990) El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation. Academic Press, San Diego, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH, Seigel AD (1985) Simulation of El Niño of 1982–1983. In: Nihoul JCJ (ed) Coupled ocean-atmosphere models. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH, Yamagata T, Pacanowski RC (1984) Unstable air-sea interactions in the tropics. J Atmos Sci 41:604–613

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH, Hurlin WJ, Seigel AD (1987) Simulation of the seasonal cycle of the tropical Pacific Ocean. J Phys Oceanogr 17:1986–2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH, Lau NC, Pacanowski RC, Nath MJ (1989) Two different simulations of Southern Oscillation and El Niño with coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models. Phil Trans Roy Soc A329:167–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Philander SGH, Pacanowski RC, Lau NC, Nath MJ (1992) Simulation of ENSO with a global atmospheric GCM coupled to a high-resolution, tropical Pacific ocean GCM. J Climate (in press)

  • Pittalwala I, Hameed S (1991) Simulation of the North Atlantic Oscillation in a general circulation model. Geophys Res Lett (in press)

  • Pollard D (1982) The performance of an upper-ocean model coupled to an atmospheric GCM: preliminary results. Climatic Research Institute, Report No. 31, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Randall D (1976) The interaction of the planetary boundary layer with large-scale circulations. PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmusson EM, Carpenter TH (1982) Variations in the tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation/El Niño. Mon Wea Rev 110:354–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmusson EM, Carpenter TH (1983) The relationship between eastern equatorial Pacific sea-surface temperatures and rainfall over India and Sri Lanka. Mon Wea Rev 111:517–528

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmusson EM, Wang X, Ropelewski CF (1990) The biennial component of ENSO variability. J Marine Syst 1:71–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds RW (1988) A real-time global sea surface temperature analysis. J Climate 1:75–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Roeckner E, Dümenil L, Kirk E, Lunkeit F, Ponater M, Rockel B, Sausen R, Schlese U (1989) The Hamburg version of the ECMWF model (ECHAM). In: Boer GJ (ed) Research activities in atmospheric and oceanic modelling. CAS/JSC Working Group on Numerical Experimentation, No. 13, 7.1-7.4

  • Rosati A, Miyakoda K (1988) A general circulation model for upper ocean simulation. J Phys Oceanogr 18:1601–1626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sausen R, Barthel K, Hasselmann K (1988) Coupled ocean-atmosphere models with flux correction. Clim Dyn 2:145–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger ME, Gates WL (1980) The January and July performance of the OSU two-level atmospheric general circulation model. J Atmos Sci 37:1914–1943

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger ME, Gates WL (1981) Preliminary analysis of the mean annual cycle and interannual variability simulated by the OSU two-level atmospheric general circulation model. Report No. 23, Climatic Research Institute, Oregon State University, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Schopf PS, Cane MA (1983) On equatorial dynamics, mixed layer physics and sea surface temperature. J Phys Oceanogr 13:917–935

    Google Scholar 

  • Schopf PS, Suarez MJ (1988) Vacillations in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J Atmos Sci 45:549–566

    Google Scholar 

  • Schopf PS, Suarez MJ (1990) Ocean wave dynamics and the time scale of ENSO. J Phys Oceanogr 20:549–566

    Google Scholar 

  • Seager R, Zebiak SE, Cane MA (1988) A model of the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature climatology. J Geophys Res 93:1265–1280

    Google Scholar 

  • Shukla J, Fennessey MJ (1988) Prediction of time-mean atmospheric circulation and rainfall: influence of Pacific sea surface temperature anomaly. J Atmos Sci 45:9–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Slingo A, Wilderspin RC, Smith RNB (1991) The effect of improved physical parameterization on simulations of cloud and the earth's radiation budget. J Geophys Res (in press)

  • Sperber KR (1989) Southern Oscillation simulation in coupled ocean/atmosphere global climate models. Ph D Dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperber KR, Hameed S (1991) Southern Oscillation in the OSU coupled upper ocean-atmosphere GCM. Clim Dyn (in press)

  • Sperber KR, Hameed S, Gates WL, Potter GL (1987) Southern Oscillation simulated in a global climate model. Nature 329:140–142

    Google Scholar 

  • von Storch H (ed) (1988) Climate simulations with the ECMWF T21-model in Hamburg. Part II: Climatology and sensitivity experiments. Large scale atmospheric modelling Report No. 4, Meteorologisches Institut der Universität Hamburg, FRG

    Google Scholar 

  • Suarez MJ, Schopf PS (1988) A delayed action oscillator for ENSO. J Atmos Sci 45:3283–3287

    Google Scholar 

  • Suarez MJ, Arakawa A, Randall DA (1983) The parameterization of the planetary boundary layer in the UCLA general circulation model: formulation and results. Mon Wea Rev 111:2224–2243

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokioka T et al. (1984) A description of the Meteorological Research Institute atmospheric general circulation model (MRIGCM-I). Technical Report of the MRI 13:1–249

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace JM, Mitchell TP, Deser C (1989) The influence of seasurface temperature on surface wind in the eastern equatorial Pacific: seasonal and interannual variability. J Climate 2:1492–1499

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington WM, Meehl GA (1983) General circulation model experiments on the climatic effects due to a doubling and quadrupling of carbon dioxide concentration. J Geophys Res 88:6600–6610

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington WM, Meehl GA (1984) Seasonal cycle experiment on the climate sensitivity due to a doubling of CO2 with an atmospheric general circulation model coupled to a simple mixed-layer ocean model. J Geophys Res 89:9475–9503

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington WM, Meehl GA (1989) Climate sensitivity due to increased CO2: experiments with a coupled atmosphere and ocean general circulation model. Clim Dyn 4:1–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson DL et al. (1987) Description of NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM1). NCAR/TN-285 + STR

  • World Climate Research Programme (1990) Proc Int TOGA Scientific Conference, World Meteorological Organization, Technial Document No. 379, WCRP-43, World Climate Research Programme, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyrtki K (1975) El Niño-the dynamic response of the equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric forcing. J Phys Oceanogr 5:572–584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebiak SE (1986) Atmospheric convergence feedback in a simple model for El Niño. Mon Wea Rev 114:1263–1271

    Google Scholar 

  • Zebiak SE (1990) Intermediate models of ENSO. Proc Int TOGA Scientific Conference, World Meteorological Organization, Technical Document No. 379, WCRP-43, World Climate Research Programme, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Zebiak SE, Cane MA (1987) A model El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Mon Wea Rev 115:2262–2278

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. C Gordon

    Present address: Hadley Centre/Meteorological Office, RG12 2SZ, Bracknell, Berkshire, UK

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of California, 90024, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    J D Neelin, M Ghil & C R Mechoso

  2. Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, W-2000, Hamburg, FRG

    M Latif, U Cubasch, J M Oberhuber & K R Sterl

  3. Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, De Bilt, Nederland

    M A F Allaart

  4. Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, 10964, Palisades, NY, USA

    M A Cane & S E Zebiak

  5. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 94550, Livermore, CA, USA

    W L Gates & K R Sperber

  6. National Center for Atmospheric Research, 80307, Boulder, CO, USA

    P R Gent, G A Meehl & J Tribbia

  7. Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California, 90024, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    M Ghil

  8. Meteorological Unit, Hooke Institute for Atmospheric Research, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, OXI 3PU, Oxford, UK

    C Gordon

  9. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, 08542, Princeton, NJ, USA

    N C Lau

  10. Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences Program, Princeton University, 08542, Princeton, NJ, USA

    S G H Philander

  11. Laboratory for Hydrospheric Processes, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 20771, Greenbelt, MD, USA

    P S Schopf

  12. Meteorological Research Institute, 1-1 Nagamine, 305, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

    T Tokioka

Authors
  1. J D Neelin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M Latif
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M A F Allaart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M A Cane
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. U Cubasch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. W L Gates
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. P R Gent
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. M Ghil
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. C Gordon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. N C Lau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. C R Mechoso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. G A Meehl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. J M Oberhuber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. S G H Philander
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. P S Schopf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  16. K R Sperber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  17. K R Sterl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  18. T Tokioka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  19. J Tribbia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  20. S E Zebiak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Neelin, J.D., Latif, M., Allaart, M.A.F. et al. Tropical air-sea interaction in general circulation models. Climate Dynamics 7, 73–104 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209610

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209610

Keywords

Search

Navigation