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Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Breeding: Opportunities and Challenges

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Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Industrial and Food Crops

Abstract

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an autumnal herbaceous flowering plant belonging to the Iridaceae family. It is considered the most expensive spice in the world and a valuable medicinal herb. The origin of saffron is unclear. The probable center of origin of the plant is Asia Minor (Greece) and/or the Middle East (Iran). From the historical point of view, use of saffron for medical treatment, perfume, food and dye dates back 4000 years. Saffron stigmas contain three important secondary metabolites, crocin, picrocrocin and safranal that are responsible for the saffron color, taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron’s adaptation to hot and dry climates has led to widespread cultivation in arid regions, notably Iran where it is a primary income source for many people. The triploid genome of saffron causes the production of abnormal pollen triggering self-sterility. With respect to the clonal nature of saffron, it is believed that there is only one cultivar worldwide. Lack of genetic variation restricts the use of traditional plant breeding based on selection. Probable wild relatives could be an excellent source of genes to alter saffron traits by cross-pollination. In addition, an induced mutation approach with various mutagen agent treatments is an alternative to produce genetic variations. Recent advances in sequencing methods and next-generation sequencing (NGS), provide efficient approaches such as transcriptome sequencing along with proteome and metabolome information, which would help to exploit functional genomics toward genetic engineering of the economic traits of saffron.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

    Majid Shokrpour

Authors
  1. Majid Shokrpour
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Majid Shokrpour .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, King Faisal University, Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia

    Jameel M. Al-Khayri

  2. University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Shri Mohan Jain

  3. Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Dennis V. Johnson

Appendices

Appendices

1.1 Appendix I: Research Institutes Relevant to Saffron

Institution

Specialization and research activities

Contact information and website

Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran

Germplasm conservation , molecular and traditional breeding, agronomy

Telefax: +98 26 32248721

utcan.ac.ir

The North America Center for Saffron Research And Development, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA

Agronomy, production management

Tel.: +1 802-656-5440

https://www.uvm.edu/%7Esaffron/

Saffron Institute of Torbat-e-Heydarieh, University of Torbat-e- Heydarieh, Iran

Production management, marketing

Tel.: +98 51 52210145

http://si.um.ac.ir/

SaffronGlobnet, University of Ferdowsi, Mashhad, Iran

A platform for scientific exchange between interested individuals and institutions

Email: saffronglobnet@um.ac.ir

Tel/Fax: +98-511-8796841

http://saffronglobnet.um.ac.ir/index.php

Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Phytochemical and molecular studies

Tel.: 967 599 200

Fax: 967 599 238

https://previa.uclm.es/dep/ctagroforestal/index.asp

1.2 Appendix II: Crocus Taxonomy for Section, Series and Species

Section

Series

Species

Flowering time

Crocus

Verni

Corms with reticulated fibers

Crocus etruscus Parl.

C. ilvensis Peruzzi & Carta

C. kosaninii Pulevic

C. longiflorus Raf.

Spring (except of longiflorus)

  

C. tommasinianus Herb.

C. vernus (L.)

 
  

C. vernus ssp. albiflorus (Kit. ex Schult.) Asch. & Graebn.

 

C. vernus ssp. vernus

 

Baytopi

Corms with strongly reticulated fibers, bracts absent; anthers extrorsely dehiscent

C. baytopiorum B. Mathew

Spring

 

Scardici

Leaves have no pale stripe on the upper surface

C. pelistericus Pulevic

C. scardicus Kos.

Spring

 

Versicolores

Corms with tunics, which for the most part have parallel fibers, flowers with conspicuous exterior striping

C. cambessedesii J. Gay

C. versicolor Ker Gawl. – cloth-of-silver C.

C. corsicus Vanucchi ex Maw

C. imperati Ten.

C. imperati ssp. imperati

C. imperati ssp. suaveolens (Bertol.) B. Mathew

C. minimus DC.

Spring

 

Longiflori:

Yellow anthers, styles much divided

C. goulimyi Turrill (see also Constantine Goulimis)

C. ligusticus M.G. Mariotti (Syn. C. medius Balb.)

C. niveus Bowles

C. nudiflorus Smith.

Autumn

  

C. serotinus Salisb. – late C.

C. serotinus ssp. clusii (J. Gay) B. Mathew

 
  

C. serotinus ssp. salzmannii (J. Gay) B. Mathew

C. serotinus ssp. serotinus

 
 

Kotschyani

Anthers white, styles for the most part three-forked

C. autranii Albov.

C. gilanicus B. Matthew

C. karduchorum Kotschy ex Maw

C. kotschyanus K. Koch – Kotschy’s C. (syn. C. zonatus)

Autumn

  

C. kotschyanus ssp. cappadocicus B. Mathew

C. kotschyanus ssp. hakkariensis B. Mathew

 
  

C. kotschyanus ssp. kotschyanus

C. kotschyanus ssp. suworowianus (K. Koch) B. Mathew

 
  

C. ochroleucus Boiss. & Gaill.

C. scharojanii Ruprecht

C. scharojanii ssp. scharojanii

 
  

C. scharojanii ssp. lazicus (Boiss.) B. Mathew

C. vallicola Herb

 
 

Crocus

Anthers yellow, style distinctly three-branched

C. asumaniae B. Mathew & T. Baytop

C. cartwrightianus Herb.

C. sativus L. – saffron C. (a sterile triploid mutant or hybrid), presumably derived from C. cartwrightianus

Autumn

  

C. hadriaticus Herb.

C. hadriaticus ssp. hadriaticus

C. hadriaticus ssp. parnassicus (B. Mathew) B. Mathew

C. hadriaticus ssp. parnonicus B. Mathew

 
  

C. moabiticus Bornm. & Dinsmore ex Bornm.

C. mathewii H. Kemdorff & E. Pasche (1994)

C. naqabensis Al-Eisawi (2001)

C. oreocreticus B.L. Burtt

 
  

C. pallasii Goldb.

C. pallasii ssp. dispathaceus (Bowles) B. Mathew

C. pallasii ssp. haussknechtii (Boiss. & Reut. ex Maw) B. Mathew

 
  

C. pallasii ssp. pallasii

C. pallasii ssp. turcicus B. Mathew

C. thomasii Ten

 
 

Unknown

C. malyi Vis. (formerly in Series Versicolores)

C. banaticus Heuff. (formerly in obsolete subgenus Crociris)

Spring

Nudiscapus

Reticulati

Corm tunic for the most part decidedly covered with reticulated fibers, style three-forked or much divided

C. abantensis T. Baytop & B. Mathew

C. ancyrensis (Herb.) Maw – Ankara C.

C. angustifolius Weston – cloth-of-gold C.

C. cancellatus Herb.

C. cancellatus ssp. cancellatus

Winter or Spring

  

C. cancellatus ssp. damascenus (Herb.) B. Mathew

 
  

C. cancellatus ssp. lycius B. Mathew

C. cancellatus ssp. mazziaricus (Herb.) B. Mathew

C. cancellatus ssp.

 
  

pamphylicus B. Mathew

C. cvijicii Kos.

C. dalmaticus Vis.

C. gargaricus Herb.

C. herbertii B. Mathew (became a true species)

C. hermoneus Kotschy ex Maw

C. jablanicensis N. Randj. & V. Randj.

 
  

C. reticulatus Steven ex Adams

C. reticulatus ssp. hittiticus (T. Baytop & B. Mathew) B. Mathew

 
  

C. reticulatus ssp. reticulatus

C. robertianus C. D. Brickell

C. rujanensis Randjel. & D. A. Hill (1990)

 
  

C. sieberi J. Gay – Sieber’s C., Cretan C.

 
  

C. sieberi ssp. atticus (Boiss. & Orph.) B. Mathew

 
  

C. sieberi ssp. nivalis (Bory & Chaub.) B. Mathew

C. sieberi ssp. sieberi

C. sieberi ssp. sublimis (Herb.) B. Mathew

 
  

C. sieheanus Barr ex B.L. Burtt

C. veluchensis Her

 
 

Biflori

C. aerius Herb.

C. almehensis C.D. Brickell & B. Mathew

Winter or Spring

 

Tunics of corms split into rings at the base, either entire or with tooth like projections, leathery in texture, style three-forked

C. biflorus Mill. – silvery C., Scotch C.

C. biflorus ssp. biflorus

 

C. biflorus ssp. adamii (J. Gay) K. Richt.

C. biflorus ssp. alexandri (Nicic ex Velen.) B. Mathew

 

C. biflorus ssp. artvinensis (J.Philippow) B. Mathew

 
  

C. biflorus ssp. atrospermus Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. caelestis

 
  

Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. caricus Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. crewei (Hook.f.) B. Mathew

 
  

C. biflorus ssp. fibroannulatus Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. ionopharynx Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. isauricus (Siehe ex Bowles) B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. leucostylosus

 
  

Kernd. & Pasche

C. biflorus ssp. melantherus B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. nubigena (Herb.) B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp.

 
  

pseudonubigena B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. pulchricolor (Herb.) B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. punctatus B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. stridii (Papan.

 
  

& Zacharof) B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. tauri (Maw) B. Mathew

C. biflorus ssp. weldenii (Hoppe & Fuernr.) B. Mathew

 
  

C. biflorus ssp. yataganensis Kernd. & Pasche

C. chrysanthus Herb. – Golden C., Snow C.

C. chrysanthus ssp. chrysanthus

C. chrysanthus ssp. multifolius Papan. & Zacharof

 
  

C. cyprius Boiss. & Kotschy

C. danfordiae Maw

C. danfordiae ssp. danfordiae

C. danfordiae ssp. kurdistanicus Maroofi & Assadi

C. hartmannianus Holmboe

C. kerndorffiorum Pasche (1993)

C. leichtlinii (Dewar) Bowles

C. nerimaniae Yüzbasioglu &

 
  

Varol (2004)

C. pestalozzae Boiss.

C. wattiorum (B. Mathew, 1995) B. Mathew (2000)

C. demirizianus O. Erol & L. Can (2012)

C. yakarianus Yıldırım & O. Erol (2013)

 
 

Speciosi

Corm tunic splits into rings at the base, leathery or membranous, foliage after the flowers, style much divided

C. pulchellus Herb. – hairy

C. speciosus M. Bieb. – Bieberstein’s C., large purple C.

C. speciosus ssp. ilgazensis B. Mathew

C. speciosus ssp. speciosus

C. speciosus ssp. xantholaimos B. Mathew

Autumn

 

Orientales

Corm with parallel fibers or lightly reticulated, numerous leaves, style three-forked

C. alatavicus Semenova & Reg.

C. caspius Fischer & Meyer (formerly in Series Biflori)

C. korolkowii Regel ex Maw – celandine

C. michelsonii B. Fedtsch

Spring

 

Flavi

Tunics of the corms membranous, split into parallel fibers, styles much divided

C. adanensis T. Baytop & B. Mathew (formerly in Series Biflori)

C. antalyensis Mathew

C. antalyensis ssp. antalyensis

C. antalyensis ssp. striatus O. Erol & M. Koçyiğit (2010)

C. antalyensis ssp. gemicii L. Sik & O. Erol (2011)

Spring

  

C. candidus E.D. Clarke

C. flavus Weston – Yellow

C. flavus ssp. flavus

C. flavus ssp. dissectus T. Baytop & B. Mathew

C. flavus ssp. sarichinarensis Rukšans

 
  

C. graveolens Boiss. & Reut.

C. hyemalis Boiss.

C. olivieri Gray

C. olivieri ssp. olivieri – Balkan and Turkey

C. olivieri ssp. balansae (J. Gay ex Baker) B. Mathew – endemic round İzmir, West-Turkey

 
  

C. olivieri ssp. istanbulensis B. Mathew, Istanbul, Turkey.

C. paschei H. Kerndorff

C. vitellinus Wahl

 
 

Aleppici

Tunics of the corms membranous, with split, parallel fibers, foliage produced at the same time as the flowers

C. aleppicus Baker

C. boulosii Greuter

C. veneris Tappein ex Poech

Autumn or Winter

 

Carpetani

Undersurface of the leaves rounded with grooves, upper surface channeled, style whitish, obscurely divided

C. carpetanus Boiss. & Reut.

C. nevadensis Amo & Campo

Spring

 

Ntertexti

Corm tunic fibrous with fibers interwoven, spring-flowering

C. fleischeri J. Gay

Spring

 

Laevigatae

Corm tunic membranous or splitting into parallel fibers, sometimes leathery, foliage produced at the same time as flowers, anthers white, style much divided

C. boryi J. Gay

C. laevigatus Bory & Chaub.

C. tournefortii J. Gay

Autumn

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Shokrpour, M. (2019). Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Breeding: Opportunities and Challenges. In: Al-Khayri, J., Jain, S., Johnson, D. (eds) Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Industrial and Food Crops. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23265-8_17

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