Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Electrophysiology of the Locus Coeruleus: Implications for Stress-Induced Depression

  • Chapter
Animal Models of Depression

Abstract

Exposing rats to uncontrollable shock produces behavioral and vegetative changes which bear considerable similarity to what is seen in human depression. This procedure represents the most widely studied animal model of psychopathology. As a result of this extensive study, similarity of the model to human depression has been shown with respect to etiology, symptomatology, and responsiveness to treatment. These similarities will now be reviewed briefly.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aghajanian GK, Cedarbaum JM, Wang RY (1977): Evidence for norepinephrinemediated inhibition of locus coeruleus neurons. Brain Res 136:570–577

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aghajanian GK, Vandermaelen CP, Andrade R (1983): Intracellular studies on the role of calcium in regulated activity and reactivity of locus coeruleus neurons in vivo. Brain Res 273:237–243

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Altenor A, Kay E, Richter M (1977): The generality of learned helplessness in the rat. Learn Motiv 8:54–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrade R, Aghajanian GK (1984a): Locus coeruleus activity in vitro: Intrinsic regulation by a calcium-dependent potassium conductance but not alpha-2 adrenoreceptors. J Neurosci 4:161–170

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andrade R, Aghajanian GK (1984b): Intrinsic regulation of locus coeruleus neurons: electrophysiological evidence indicating a predominant role for autoinhibition. Brain Res 310:401–406

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H (1975): Time-dependent variations in aversively motivated behaviors: non-associative effects of cholinergic and catecholaminergic activity. Psychol Rev 82:359–385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Sklar LS (1979): Catecholamine depletion upon re-exposure to stress: mediation of the escape deficits produced by inescapable shock. J Comp Physiol Psychol 93:610–625

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Sklar LS (1981): Social housing conditions influence escape deficits produced by uncontrollable stress: assessment of the contribution of norepinephrine. Behav Neural Biol 32:406–427

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Zacharko RM (1982): Depression: the predisposing influence of stress. Behav Brain Sci 5:89–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, deCatanzaro D, Remington G (1978): Escape performance following exposure to inescapable shock: deficits in motor response maintenance. J Exp Psychol [Anim Behav] 4:197–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Remington G, Sklar LS (1979a): Effects of inescapable shock on subsequent escape performance: Catecholaminergic and cholinergic mediation of response initiation and maintenance. Psychopharmacology 61:107–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Irwin J, Sklar LS (1979c): Deficits of escape performance following catecholamine depletion: implications for behavioral deficits induced by uncontrollable stress. Psychopharmacology 64:163–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Suissa A, Sklar LS (1980a): Escape deficits induced by uncontrollable stress: antagonism by dopamine and noradrenaline agonists. Behav Neural Biol 28:34–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Pizzino A, Sklar LS (1980b): Coping for stress, norepinephrine depletion and escape performance. Brain Res 191:583–588

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Glazier SJ, Sklar LS (1981): Cholinergic influences on escape deficits produced by uncontrollable stress. Psychopharmacology 74:81–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anisman H, Irwin J, Beauchamp C, Zacharko R (1983): Cross-stressor immunization against the behavioral deficits produced by uncontrollable shock. Behav Neurosci 97:452–461

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aston-Jones G, Bloom FE (1981): Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fluctuations in the sleep-waking cycle. J Neurosci 1:876–886

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brady JP, Thornton DR, Fisher D (1962): Deleterious effects of anxiety elicited by conditioned pre-aversive stimuli in the rat. Psychosom Med 24:590–595

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cedarbaum JM, Aghajanian GK (1978): Activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli: Modulation by collateral inhibitory mechanism. Life Sci 23:1383–1392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corum CR, Thurmond JB (1977): Effects on acute exposure to stress on subsequent aggression and locomotion performance. Psychosom Med 39:436–443

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drugan RC, Maier SF (1983): Analgesic and opioid involvement in the shock-elicited activity and escape deficits produced by inescapable shock. Learn Motiv 14:30–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drugan RC, Grau JW, Maier SF, Madden J, Barchas JD (1981): Cross tolerance between morphine and the long-term analgesic reaction to inescapable shock. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 14:677–682

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drugan RC, Moye TB, Maier SF (1982): Opioid and nonopioid forms of stressinduced analgesia: some environmental determinants and characteristics. Behav Neural Biol 35:251–264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drugan RD, Ryan SM, Minor TR, Maier SF (1988): Librium prevents the analgesia and shuttlebox escape deficit typically observed following inescapable shock. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 21:749–754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engberg G, Svensson TH (1980): Pharmacological analysis of a cholinergic receptor mediated regulation of brain norepinephrine neurons. J Neural Transm 49:137–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foote SL, Aston-Jones G, Bloom FE (1980): Impulse activity of locus coeruleus neurons in awake rats and monkeys is a function of sensory stimulation and arousal. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77:3033–3037

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frankhuyzen AL, Mulder AH (1980): Noradrenaline inhibits depolarization-induced 3-H-serotonin release from slices of rat hippocampus. Eur J Pharmacol 63:179–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frankhuyzen AL, Mulder AH (1982): Pharmacological characterization of presynaptic alpha-adrenoceptors modulating [3H]norepinephrine and [3H]hydroxytyptamine release from slices of hippocampus of the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 81:97–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank E, Stewart BD (1983): Treatment of depressed rape victims: An approach to stress-induced symptomatology. In: Treatment of Depression: Old Controversies and New Approaches, Clayton PJ, Barrett JE, eds. New York, Raven Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Freda JS, Klein SB (1976): Generality of the failure-to-escape (helplessness) phenomenon in rats. Anim Learn Behav 4:401–406

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman JE, Aghajanian GK (1984): Idazoxan (RX 781094) selectively antagonizes alpha-2 adrenoreceptors on rat central neurons. Eur J Pharmacol 105:265–272

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glazer HI, Weiss JM (1976a): Long-term interference effect: an alternative to “learned helplessness.” J Exp Psychol [Anim Behav] 2:202–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glazer HI, Weiss JM (1976b): Long-term and transitory interference effects. J Exp Psychol [Anim Behav] 2:191–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glazer HI, Weiss JM, Pohorecky LA, Miller NE (1975): Monoamines as mediators of avoidance escape behavior. Psychosom Med 37:535–543

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman PA, Weiss JM, Hoffman LJ, Ambrose MJ, Bailey WH, Charry JM (1982): Reversal of behavioral depression by infusion of an alpha-2 adrenergic agonist into the locus coeruleus. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:362

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman PA, Weiss JM, Ambrose MJ, Cardie KA, Bailey WH, Charry JM (1983): Infusion of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor into the locus coeruleus can protect against stress-induced depression. Soc Neurosci Abst 9:553

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellhammer DH, Bell M, Ludwig M, Rea MA (1983): Learned helplessness: Effects on brain monoamines. Soc Neurosci Abstr 9:555

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes CW, Kent TA, Campbell J, Oke A, Croskell H, Preskorn SH (1984): Cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular permeability in an inescapable shock (learned helplessness) animal model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 21:891–894

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Irwin J, Suissa A, Anisman H (1980): Differential effects of inescapable shock on escape performance and discrimination learning in a water escape task. J Exp Psychol [Anim Behav] 6:21–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson RL, Maier SF, Rapaport PM (1978): Exposure to inescapable shock produces both activity and associative deficits in the rat. Learn Motiv 9:69–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson RL, Alexander JH, Maier SF (1980): Learned helplessness, inactivity, and associative deficits: the effects of inescapable shock on response choice escape learning. J Exp Psychol [Anim Behav] 6:1–20

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson JO, Henn FA (1980): Control of hippocampal beta-receptors in learned helplessness. Psychology [Anim Behav] 6:21–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson JO, Sherman A, Petty F, Taylor D, Henn F (1982): Receptor changes in learned helplessness. Soc Neurosci Abstr 8:392

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouvet M (1973): Pharmacology of the future of man. In: Brain, Nerves and Synapses, Vol 4, Bloom FE, Acheson, GH eds. Basel: Karger

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz RJ (1981): Animal models and human depressive disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 5:231–246

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keisey JE (1977): Escape acquisition following inescapable shock in the rat. Anim Learn Behav 5:83–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawry JA, Lupo V, Overmier JJ, Kochevar J, Hollis KL, Anderson DC (1978): Interference with avoidance behavior as a function of qualitative properties of inescapable shocks. Anim Learn Behav 6:147–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leff MJ, Roatch JF, Bunney WE (1970): Environmental factors preceding the onset of severe depression. Psychiatry 33:293–311

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lenhart H, Reinstein D, Strowbridge B, Wurtman R (1984): Neurochemical and behavioral consequences of acute, uncontrollable stress: Effects of dietary tyrosine. Brain Res 303:215–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard BE (1984): Pharmacology of new antidepressants. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Behav Psychiatry 8:97–108

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd C (1980): Life events and depressive disorder reviewed. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:541–648

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Looney TA, Cohen PS (1972): Retardation of jump-up escape responding in rats pre-treated with different frequencies of noncontingent electric shock. J Comp Physiol Psycholl 78:317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacLennan AJ, Drugan RC, Hyson RL, Maier SF, Madden JIV, Barchas JD (1982): Dissociation of long-term analgesia and the shuttle box escape deficit caused by inescapable shock. J Comp Physiol Psychol 96:904–912

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Jackson RL (1977): The nature of the initial coping response and the learned helplessness effects. Anim Learn Behav 5:404–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Anderson C, Lieberman DA (1972): Influence of control of shock on subsequent shock-elicited aggression. J Comp Physiol Psychol 81:94–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Albin RW, Testa TJ (1973): Failure to learn to escape in rats previously exposed to inescapable shock depends on the nature of the escape response. J Comp Physiol Psychol 85:581–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Coon DJ, McDaniel MA, Jackson RL, Grau J (1979): The time course of learned helplessness inactivity, and nociceptive deficits in rats. Learn Motiv 10:467–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Davies S, Grau JW, Jackson RL, Morrison DH, Moye T, Madden IV, J Barchas JD (1980): Opiate antagonists and the long-term reaction induced by inescapable shock. J Comp Physiol Psychol 94:1172–1183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Drugan RC, Hyson RL, MacLennan AJ, Madden J, Barchas JD (1981): Opioid and nonopioid mechanisms of stress-induced analgesia. In: Advances in Endogenous and Exogenous Opioids, Takagi H, Simon EJ eds. Amsterdam, Elsevier Biomedical

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier SF, Drugan R, Grau JW, Hyson R, MacLennan AJ, Moye T, Madden IV, Barchas JD (1983): Learned helplessness, pain inhibition, and the endogenous opiates. In: Advances in Analysis of Behavior, Vol 5, Zeiter MD, Harzern P, eds. New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Overmier JB (1968): Interference with avoidance behavior: Failure to avoid traumatic shock. J Exp Psychol 78:340–343

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Overmier JB, Seligman MEP (1967): Effects of inescapable shock on subsequent escape and avoidance learning. J Comp Physiol Psychol 63:23–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pare WP (1964): The effect of chronic environmental stress on stomach ulceration, adrenal function, and consummatory behavior in the rat. J Psychol 57:143–151

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pare WP (1965): Stress and consummatory behavior in the albino rat. Psychol Rep 16:399–405

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters JE, Finch SB (1961): Short- and long-range effects on the rat of a fearproducing stimulus. Psychosom Med 23:138–152

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty F, Sherman AD (1979): Reversal of learned helplessness by imipramine Commun Psychopharmacol 3:371–373

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty F, Sherman AD (1980): Regional aspects of the prevention of learned helplessness by desipramine. Life Sci 26:1447–1452

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty F, Sherman AD (1981): GABAergic modulation of learned helplessness. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 15:567–570

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty F, Sherman AD (1983): Learned helplessness induction decreases in vivo cortical serotonin release. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 18:649–651

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty F, Sacquitne JL, Sherman AD (1982): Tricyclic antidepressant drug action correlates with its tissue levels in anterior neocortex. Neuropharmacology 21:475–477

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Redmond DE Jr, Maas JW, Dekirmanjian H, Schlemmer RE (1973): Changes in social behavior of monkeys after inescapable shock. Psychosom Med 35:448–449

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritter S, Pelzer NL, Ritter RC (1978): Absence of glucoprivic feeding after stress suggests impairment of noradrenergic neuron function. Brain Res 149:399–411

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosellini RA (1978): Inescapable shock interferes with the acquisition of an appetitive operant. Anim Learn Behav 6:155–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP (1974): Depression and learned helplessness. In: The Psychology of Depression: Contemporary Theory and Research, Friedman RJ, Katz MM, eds. Washington D.C.: V.H. Winston pp. 83–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP (1975): Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death., San Francisco, W.H. Freeman

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP, Beagley G (1975): Learned helplessness in the rat. J Comp Physiol Psychol 88:534–541

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP, Maier SF (1967): Failure to escape traumatic shock. J Exp Psychol 74:1–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman MEP, Bosellini RA, Kozak MJ (1975): Learned helplessness in the rat: time course, immunization, and reversibility. J Comp Physiol Psychol 88:542–547

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman AD, Petty F (1980): Neurochemical basis of the action of antidepressants on learned helplessness. Behav Neural Biol 30:119–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman AD, Petty F (1982): Additivity of neurochemical changes in learned helplessness. Behav Neural Biol 35:344–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman AD, Allers GL, Petty F, Henn FA (1979): A neuropharmacologically relevant animal model of depression. Neuropharmacology 18:891–893

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman AD, Sacquitne JL, Petty F (1982): Selectivity of the learned helplessness model of depression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 16:449–454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu N, Imamoto K (1979): Fine structure of the locus coeruleus in the rat. Arch Histol Jpn 31:229–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Simson PG, Weiss JM, Ambrose MJ, Webster A (1986a): Infusion of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor into the locus coeruleus can prevent stress-induced behavioral depression. Biol Psychiatry 21:724–734

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simson PG, Weiss JM, Hoffman LJ, Ambrose MJ (1986b): Reversal of behavioral depression by infusion of an alpha-2 agonist into the locus coeruleus. Neuropharmacology 25:385–389

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone EA (1978): Possible grooming deficit in stressed rats. Res Commun Psychol Psychiatr Behav 3:109–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton BR, Coover GD, Lints CE (1981): Motor debilitation, short- and long-term shuttlebox deficits, and brain monoamine changes following footshock pretreatment in rats. Physiol Psychol 9:127–134

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svensson TH, Bunney BS, Aghajanian GK (1975): Inhibition of both noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons in brain by the alpha-adrenergic agonist Clonidine. Brain Res 92:291–306

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson LW (1976): The locus coeruleus; a cytoarchitectonic, Golgi, and immunocytochemical study in the albino rat. Brain Res 110:39–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swenson RM, Vogel WH (1983): Plasma catecholamine and corticosterone as well as brain catecholamine changes during coping in rats exposed to stressful footshock. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 18:689–693

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Telner JI, Singhai RL (1981): Effects of nortriptyline treatment on learned helplessness in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 14:823–826

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Telner JI, Singhal RL (1984): The learned helplessness model of depression. J Psychiatr Res 18:207–215

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Telner JI, Singhal RL, Lapierre YD (1980): Brain monoaminergic systems and inescapable shock: support for the learned helplessness hypothesis. Neuroendocrinol Lett 2:285–290

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuda A, Tanaka M, Hirai H, Pare WP (1983): Effects of coping behavior on gastric lesions in rats as a function of predictability of shock. Jap Psychol Res 25:9–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM (1968): Effects of coping responses on stress. J Comp Physiol Psychol 65:251–260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM (1971): Effects of coping behavior in different warning-signal conditions on stress pathology in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 77:1–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Glazer HI (1975): Effects of acute exposure to stressors on subsequent avoidance-escape behavior. Psychosom Med 37:499–521

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Stone EA, Harreil N (1970): Coping behavior and brain norepinephrine level in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 72:153–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Glazer HI, Pohorecky LA, Brick J, Miller NE (1975): Effects of chronic exposure to stressors on avoidance-escape behavior and on brain norepinephrine. Psychosom Med 37:522–533

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Glazer HI, Pohorecky LA (1976): Coping behavior and neurochemical changes: an alternative explanation for the original “learned helplessness” experiments. In: Animal Models in Human Psychobiology, Serban G, King A, eds. New York, London: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Glazer HI, Pohorecky LA, Bailey WH, Schneider LH (1979): Coping behavior and stress-induced behavioral depression: studies of the role of brain catecholamines. In: The Psychobiology of the Depressive Disorders: Implications for the Effects of Stress, Depue E, ed. New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Bailey WH, Pohorecky LA, Korzeniowski D, Grillone G (1980): Stress-induced depression of motor activity correlates with regional changes in brain norepinephrine but not in dopamine. Neurochem Res 5:9–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Goodman PA, Losito BG, Corrigan S, Charry JM, Bailey WH (1981): Behavioral depression produced by an uncontrollable stressor: relationship to norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin levels in various regions of rat brain. Brain Res Rev 3:167–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Bailey WH, Goodman PA, Hoffman LJ, Ambrose MJ, Salman S, Charry JM (1982): A model for neurochemical study of depression. In:Behavioral Models and the Analysis of Drug Action, Spiegelstein MY, Levy A, eds. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific pp. 195–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Simson PG, Ambrose MJ, Webster A, Hoffman LJ (1985): Neurochemical basis of behavioral depression. In: Advances in Behavioral Medicine, Katkin E, Manuck S, eds. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JM, Simson PG, Hoffman LG, Ambrose MJ, Cooper S, Webster A (1986): Infusion of adrenergic receptor agonists and antagonists into the locus coeruleus and ventricular system of the brain: effects on swim-motivated and spontaneous motor activity. Neuropharmacology 25:367–384

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zacharko RM, Bowers WJ, Kokkinidis L, Anisman H (1983): Region-specific reductions of intracranial self-stimulation after uncontrollable stress: possible effects on reward processes. Behav Brain Res 9:129–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Jay M. Weiss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peter E. Simson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuropharmacology, Research Institute of the Scripps Clinic, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA

    George F. Koob PhD  & Cindy L. Ehlers PhD  & 

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, 3811 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA

    David J. Kupfer M.D. (Professor and Chairman) (Professor and Chairman)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Birkhäuser Boston

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weiss, J.M., Simson, P.E. (1989). Electrophysiology of the Locus Coeruleus: Implications for Stress-Induced Depression. In: Koob, G.F., Ehlers, C.L., Kupfer, D.J. (eds) Animal Models of Depression. Birkhäuser Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-6762-8_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-6762-8_7

  • Publisher Name: Birkhäuser Boston

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-6764-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-6762-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation