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Xenobiotic Protection/Resistance Mechanisms in Organisms

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Environmental Toxicology

Abstract

Organisms have always been exposed to chemicals that are foreign to them. Evolution has produced protective mechanisms against natural chemicals, mechanisms that are currently used against exposures to anthropogenically sourced chemical contaminants. Protection can occur at the individual level, often called tolerance, or at the population level, which is called resistance. The earliest studies on tolerance and resistance mechanisms come from the insect/pesticide literature; however recent environmental and health research is providing a wealth of information on these mechanisms in other organisms including humans. There are two major categories of protective mechanisms: (1) toxicokinetically derived mechanisms, which alter the way in which organisms absorb, biotransform, and excrete chemicals; and (2) toxicodynamically derived mechanisms, in which target sites are modified to reduce sensitivity. In both of these categories, protection can occur at the molecular and genetic level, through the cellular/tissue and organ levels, and up to and including whole organism responses including changes in behavior.

This chapter was originally published as part of the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology edited by Robert A. Meyers. DOI:10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3

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Abbreviations

Absorption:

In living organisms, the process by which environmental molecules move across biological membranes.

Adaptation:

The intergenerational genetically based selection of individuals for specific traits at the population level.

Avoidance:

The act of keeping away from or withdrawing from an undesirable environmental chemical.

Biotransformation:

The enzymatic conversion of a foreign or endogenous chemical to another form (metabolite) in living organisms.

Contaminant:

Any substance that enters a system where it is not normally found.

Defense:

A strategy or mechanism by which an organism protects itself or maintains its function in the face of a xenobiotic challenge.

Hydrophilicity:

Hydrophilicity refers to a physical property of a molecule that can transiently bond with water (H2O) (dissolve in it) through hydrogen bonding.

Hydrophobicity:

Hydrophobicity (Gr. Water fearing) is the physical property of a molecule that is repelled from a mass of water.

K ow :

Octanol water partition coefficient, which generally describes the degree of hydrophobicity of a chemical. High Log K ow values >4 are typical of hydrophobic chemicals.

Lipophilicity:

Lipophilicity (Gr. fat-liking) refers to the ability of a chemical compound to dissolve in fats, oils, lipids, and nonpolar solvents.

Phase I reactions:

Also called asynthetic or functionalization reactions and include oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis reactions. In these reactions, a hydrophobic xenobiotic is usually converted to more water soluble metabolite.

Phase II reactions:

Also called synthetic or conjugation reactions in which a xenobiotic is covalently bound to an endogenous molecule forming a water soluble metabolite.

Phase III transport:

The products of Phase I or II biotransformation reactions and some parent xenobiotics are transported out of cells by various protein transport families collectively termed Phase III transport. In some cases, these transporters prevent the cellular entry of xenobiotics.

Pollutant:

A contaminant that adversely alters properties of the environment.

Resistance:

The capacity of a population of organisms to withstand the effects of a harmful environmental agent through genetic selection of less susceptible individuals.

Tolerance:

Reduced sensitivity of an individual organism, tissue, or cell to a foreign chemical and its toxic effects through acclimatory processes.

Toxicodynamics:

The process of the interaction of chemical substances with target sites (molecules, cells, tissues, or organs) leading to adverse effects.

Toxicokinetics:

Processes of the uptake of potentially toxic substances, their biotransformation, distribution, and elimination.

Xenobiotic:

Chemicals that are foreign to biological systems.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada

    Christopher J. Kennedy

  2. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada

    Keith B. Tierney

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  1. Christopher J. Kennedy
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  2. Keith B. Tierney
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Correspondence to Christopher J. Kennedy .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. , School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 70803, Louisiana, USA

    Edward A. Laws

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Kennedy, C.J., Tierney, K.B. (2013). Xenobiotic Protection/Resistance Mechanisms in Organisms. In: Laws, E. (eds) Environmental Toxicology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5764-0_23

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