Abstract
Determination of the abundances of aquatic microbes (i.e., oxygenic and anoxygenic phototrophic and heterotrophic prokaryotes, small phototrophic and heterotrophic eukaryotes and viruses) is nowadays relatively straightforward with the use of flow cytometry. In addition, the technique can be used to test for relative differences in the activity or physiological state of some of these microbial groups, and several indices of community structure can be derived from community composition and flow cytometric signal variability. The technique is sometimes also useful to determine the presence of nonliving organic and inorganic substances and their interaction with the microbes. Here, we provide comprehensive guidance in the use of flow cytometry for these purposes and finally illustrate the usefulness of some of these approaches with data generated in an experiment in which we added oil from a tanker spill to a coastal bacterioplankton community.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Shapiro HM (2003) Practical flow cytometry, 4th edn. Wiley, New York
Gasol JM, del Giorgio PA (2000) Using flow cytometry for counting natural planktonic bacteria and understanding the structure of planktonic bacterial communities. Sci Mar 64:197–224
Swan BK et al (2013) Prevalent genome streamlining and latitudinal divergence of planktonic bacteria in the surface ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:11463–11468
Yentsch CM et al (1983) Flow cytometry and cell sorting: a technique for analysis and sorting of aquatic particles. Limnol Oceanogr 28:1275–1280
Chisholm SW et al (1988) A novel free-living prochlorophyte abundant in the oceanic euphotic zone. Nature 334:340–343
Partensky F, Hess WR, Vaulot D (1999) Prochlorococcus, a marine photosynthetic prokaryote of global significance. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 63:106–127
Courties C et al (1994) Smallest eukaryotic organism. Nature 370:255
Dubelaar GBJ, Jonker RR (2000) Flow cytometry as a tool for the study of phytoplankton. Sci Mar 64:135–156
Dubelaar GB, Casotti R, Tarran G, Biegala IC (2007) Phytoplankton and their analysis by flow cytometry. In: Dolezei J, Greilhuber J, Suda J (eds) Flow cytometry with plant cells: analysis of genes, chromosomes and genomes. Wiley, New York
Marie D, Simon N, Vaulot D (2005) Phytoplankton cell counting by flow cytometry. In: Andersen RA (ed) Algal culturing techniques. Academic, San Diego
Bailey JE et al (1977) Characterization of bacterial growth by means of flow microfluorometry. Science 198:1175–1176
Srienc F, Arnold B, Bailey JE (1984) Characterization of intracellular accumulation of Poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) in individual cells of Alcaligenes eutrophus H16 by flow cytometry. Biotechnol Bioeng 26:982–987
Tyndall RL et al (1985) Application of flow cytometry to detection and characterization of Legionella spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 49:852–857
Robertson BR, Button DK (1989) Characterizing aquatic bacteria according to population, cell size and apparent DNA content by flow cytometry. Cytometry 10:70–76
Monfort P, Baleux B (1992) Comparison of flow cytometry and epifluorescence microscopy for counting bacteria in aquatic ecosystems. Cytometry 13:188–192
Troussellier M, Courties C, Vaquer A (1993) Recent applications of flow cytometry in aquatic microbial ecology. Biol Cell 78:111–121
Heldal M, Norland S, Bratbak G, Riemann B (1994) Determination of bacterial cell number and cell volume by means of flow cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, and epifluorescence microscopy. J Microbiol Methods 20:255–263
Monger BC, Landry MR (1993) Flow cytometric analysis of marine bacteria with Hoechst 33342. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 59:905–911
Li WKW, Jellett JF, Dickie PM (1995) DNA distributions in planktonic bacteria stained with TOTO or TO-PRO. Limnol Oceanogr 40:1485–1495
del Giorgio PA, Bird DF, Prairie YT, Planas D (1996) Flow cytometric determination of bacterial abundance in lake plankton with the green nucleic acid stain SYTO 13. Limnol Oceanogr 41:783–789
Marie D, Partensky F, Vaulot D (1996) Application of the novel DNA dyes YOYO-1, YOPRO-1 and Picogreen for flow cytometric analysis of marine prokaryotes. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:1649–1655
Marie D, Brussard CPD, Thyrhaug R, Bratbak G, Vaulot D (1999) Enumeration of marine viruses in culture and natural samples by flow cytometry. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:45–52
Brussaard CPD, Marie D, Bratbak G (2000) Flow cytometric detection of viruses. J Virol Methods 85:175–182
Brussaard CPD (2004) Optimization of procedures for counting viruses by flow cytometry. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:1506–1513
Guindulain-Rifà T et al (2002) Flow cytometric detection and quantification of heterotrophic nanoflagellates in enriched seawater and cultures. Syst Appl Microbiol 25:100–108
Rose JM, Caron DA, Sieracki ME, Poulton N (2004) Counting heterotrophic nanoplanktonic protists in cultures and aquatic communities by flow cytometry. Aquat Microb Ecol 34:263–277
Zubkov MV, Burkill PH, Topping JN (2007) Flow cytometric enumeration of DNA-stained oceanic planktonic protists. J Plankton Res 29:79–86
Christaki U et al (2011) Optimized routine flow cytometric enumeration of heterotrophic flagellates using SYBR Green I. Limnol Oceanogr Methods 9:329–333
Joux F, Lebaron P (2000) Use of fluorescent probes to assess physiological functions of bacteria at single-cell level. Microbes Infect 2:1523–1535
del Giorgio PA, Gasol JM (2008) Physiological structure and single-cell activity in marine bacterioplankton. In: Kirchman DL (ed) Microbial ecology of the oceans, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 243–298
Wang Y, Hammes F, De Roy K, Verstraete W, Boon N (2010) Past, present and future applications of flow cytometry in aquatic microbiology. Trends Biotechnol 28:416–424
Crosbie ND, Pöckl M, Weisse T (2003) Rapid establishment of clonal isolates of freshwater autotrophic picoplankton by single-cell and single-colony sorting. J Microbiol Methods 55:361–370
Zubkov MV et al (2001) Linking the composition of bacterioplankton to rapid turnover of dissolved dimethylsulphoniopropionate in an algal bloom in the North Sea. Environ Microbiol 3:304–311
Vila-Costa M, Gasol JM, Sharma S, Moran MA (2012) Community analysis of high- and low-nucleic acid-containing bacteria in NW Mediterranean coastal waters using 16S rDNA pyrosequencing. Environ Microbiol 14:1390–1402
Stepanauskas R (2012) Single cell genomics: an individual look at microbes. Curr Opin Microbiol 15:613–620
Li WKW (1994) Primary production of prochlorophytes, cyanobacteria, and eucaryotic ultraphytoplankton: measurements from flow cytometric sorting. Limnol Oceanogr 39:169–175
Zubkov MV, Tarran GA (2005) Amino acid uptake of Prochlorococcus spp. in surface waters across the South Atlantic Subtropical Front. Aquat Microb Ecol 40:241–249
Vila-Costa M, Simó R, Harada H, Gasol JM, Slezak D, Kiene RP (2006) Dimethylsulfoniopropionate uptake by marine phytoplankton. Science 314:652–654
Zubkov MV, Tarran GA (2008) High bacterivory by the smallest phytoplankton in the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature 455:224–226
Casamayor EO et al (2007) Flow cytometric identification and enumeration of photosynthetic sulfur bacteria and potential for ecophysiological studies at the single-cell level. Environ Microbiol 9:1969–1985
Sarmento H et al (2008) Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa. Freshw Biol 53:756–771
Izaguirre I et al (2010) Macrophyte influence on the structure and productivity of photosynthetic picoplankton in wetlands. J Plankton Res 32:221–238
Lekunberri I (2008) Effects of different allochthonous carbon sources on marine bacterioplankton diversity and function. PhD Thesis. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
Lekunberri I et al (2010) Effects of a dust deposition event on coastal marine microbial abundance and activity, bacterial community structure and ecosystem function. J Plankton Res 32:381–396
Malits A et al (2015) Potential impacts of black carbon on the marine microbial community. Aquat Microb Ecol 75:27–42. doi:10.3354/ame01742
Ferrera I et al (2015) Transient changes in bacterioplankton communities induced by the submarine volcanic eruption of El Hierro (Canary Islands). PLoS One 10:e0118136
Minor EC, Eglinton TI, Boon JJ, Olson R (1999) Protocol for the characterization of oceanic particles via flow cytometric sorting and direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 71:2003–2013
Brando B et al (2001) The “vanishing counting bead” phenomenon: effect on absolute CD34+ cell counting in phosphate-buffered saline-diluted leukapheresis samples. Cytometry 43:154–160
Stomp M et al (2007) Colourful coexistence of red and green picocyanobacteria in lakes and seas. Ecol Lett 10:290–298
Li WKW (1997) Cytometric diversity in marine ultraphytoplankton. Limnol Oceanogr 42:874–880
Estrada M, Henriksen P, Gasol JM, Casamayor EO, Pedrós-Alió C (2004) Diversity of planktonic photoautotrophic microorganisms along a salinity gradient as depicted by microscopy, flow cytometry, pigment analysis and DNA-based methods. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 49:281–293
Morán XAG, López-Urrutia A, Calvo-Díaz A, Li WKW (2010) Increasing importance of small phytoplankton in a warmer ocean. Glob Chang Biol 16:1137–1144
Brunet C et al (2003) Measured photophysiological parameters used as tools to estimate vertical water movements in the coastal Mediterranean. J Plankton Res 25:1413–1425
Morán XAG et al (2015) More, smaller bacteria in response to ocean’s warming? Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 282:20150371
Calvo-Díaz A, Morán XAG, Suárez LA (2008) Seasonality of picophytoplankton chlorophyll a and biomass in the central Cantabrian Sea, southern Bay of Biscay. J Mar Syst 72:271–281
Stenuite S et al (2009) Photosynthetic picoplankton in Lake Tanganyika: biomass distribution patterns with depth, season and basin. J Plankton Res 31:1531–1544
Wang K, Wommack KE, Chen F (2011) Abundance and distribution of Synechococcus spp. and Cyanophages in the Chesapeake Bay. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:7459–7468
Bouvier T, del Giorgio PA, Gasol JM (2007) A comparative study of the cytometric characteristics of high and low nucleic-acid bacterioplankton cells from different aquatic ecosystems. Environ Microbiol 9:2050–2066
Morán XAG, Calvo-Díaz A (2009) Single-cell vs. bulk activity properties of coastal bacterioplankton over an annual cycle in a temperate ecosystem. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 67:43–56
Schiaffino MR, Gasol JM, Izaguirre I, Unrein F (2013) Picoplankton abundance and cytometric group diversity along a trophic and latitudinal lake gradient. Aquat Microb Ecol 68:231–250
Li WKW (2002) Macroecological patterns of phytoplankton in the northwestern North Atlantic Ocean. Nature 419:154–157
García FC et al (2015) Seasonality in molecular and cytometric diversity of marine bacterioplankton: the reshuffling of bacterial taxa by vertical mixing. Environ Microbiol. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12984
Veldhuis MJ, Kraay GW (1990) Vertical distribution and pigment composition of a picoplanktonic prochlorophyte in the subtropical North Atlantic: a combined study of HPLC-analysis of pigments and flow cytometry. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 68:121–127
Latimer P (1982) Light Scattering and absorption as methods of studying cell population parameters. Ann Rev Biophys Bioeng 11:129–150
Button DK, Robertson BP (1993) Use of high-resolution flow cytometry to determine the activity and distribution of aquatic bacteria. In: Kemp PF, Sherr BF, Sherr EB, Cole JJ (eds) Handbook of methods in aquatic microbial ecology. Lewis, Boca Raton
O’Brien TD, Li WKW, Morán XAG (eds) ICES Phytoplankton and microbial ecology status report 2010/2012. ICES Cooperative Research Report No 313
Mella-Flores D et al (2012) Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus have evolved different adaptive mechanisms to cope with light and UV stress. Front Microbiol 3:285. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00285
Gasol JM et al (1999) Significance of size and nucleic acid content heterogeneity as measured by flow cytometry in natural planktonic bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:4475–4483
Schattenhofer M et al (2011) Phylogenetic characterisation of picoplanktonic populations with high and low nucleic acid content in the North Atlantic Ocean. Syst Appl Microbiol 34:470–475
del Giorgio PA, Bouvier TC (2002) Linking the physiologic and phylogenetic successions in free-living bacterial communities along an estuarine salinity gradient. Limnol Oceanogr 47:471–486
Smith EM (1998) Coherence of microbial respiration rate and cell-specific bacterial activity in a coastal planktonic community. Aquat Microb Ecol 16:27–35
Sarmento H et al (2015) Microbial food web components, bulk metabolism, and single-cell physiology of piconeuston in surface microlayers of high-altitude lakes. Front Microbiol 6:361. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00361
Teira E et al (2007) Dynamics of the hydrocarbon-degrading Cycloclasticus bacteria during mesocosm-simulated oil spills. Environ Microbiol 9:2551–2562
Lekunberri I et al (2010) Changes in bacterial activity and community composition caused by exposure to a simulated oil spill in microcosm and mesocosm experiments. Aquat Microb Ecol 59:169–183
Picot J et al (2012) Flow cytometry: retrospective, fundamentals and recent instrumentation. Cytotechnology 64:109–130
Brussaard CP, Payet JP, Winter C, Weinbauer MG (2010) Quantification of aquatic viruses by flow cytometry. Manual of aquatic viral ecology (ASLO Chapter 11), pp 102–109
Hahna F et al (2009) flowCore: a bioconductor package for high throughput flow cytometry. BMC Bioinformatics 10:145. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-10-145
Baudoux A et al (2006) Virally induced mortality of Phaeocystis globosa during two spring blooms in temperate coastal waters. Aquat Microb Ecol 44:207–217
Lawrence JE, Brussaard CP, Suttle CA (2006) Virus-specific responses of Heterosigma akashiwo to infection. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:7829–7834
Zubkov MV, Burkill PH (2006) Syringe pumped high speed flow cytometry of oceanic phytoplankton. Cytometry A 69:1010–1019
Grégori G et al (2001) Resolution of viable and membrane-compromised bacteria in freshwater and marine waters based on analytical flow cytometry and nucleic acid double staining. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:4662–4670
Falcioni T, Papa S, Gasol JM (2008) Evaluating the flow cytometric Nucleic Acid Double Staining Protocol (NADS) in realistic planktonic bacterial death situations. App. Environ Microbiol 74:1767–1779
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Gasol, J.M., Morán, X.A.G. (2015). Flow Cytometric Determination of Microbial Abundances and Its Use to Obtain Indices of Community Structure and Relative Activity. In: McGenity, T.J., Timmis, K.N., Nogales, B. (eds) Hydrocarbon and Lipid Microbiology Protocols. Springer Protocols Handbooks. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/8623_2015_139
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/8623_2015_139
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-49129-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-49131-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols