Abstract
Research on the role of incarceration history on the mental health of imprisoned mothers reveals contradictory findings. These inconsistencies are potentially attributable to the different incarceration histories across samples masked by the use of a dichotomized incarceration history measure. This study used incarceration trajectories over the life course to determine the nature and array of incarceration experiences detrimental to mental health. Using the Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities dataset (N = 881), we conducted logistic regressions to examine the associations between imprisoned mothers’ incarceration trajectories and mental health problems. Findings suggested that incarceration trajectories were significantly associated with a post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis and demonstrated a trend towards significance to be associated with anger symptoms and suicidal ideation. However, they were not significantly related to other mental health problems, such as depressive disorder and anxiety disorder. We concluded that mental health interventions need to be customized to the unique challenges encountered by subgroups of mothers with different incarceration experiences.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, E. A., Morash, M., Smith, S. W., & Cobbina, J. E. (2017). Women’s experience of motherhood, violations of supervision requirements and arrests. British Journal of Criminology, 57, 1420–1441. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw092
Ahmed, J., Davis, B. A., Gottman, E., & Payne, H. (2006). Early onset of sexual activity: Implications in incarcerated women. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 12, 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345806288908
Arditti, J. A., & Few, A. L. (2006). Mothers’ reentry into family life following incarceration. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17, 103–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403405282450
Beck, A. J., Berzofsky, M., Caspar, R., & Krebs, C. (2013). Sexual victimization in prisons and jails reported by inmates, 2011–12. Retrieved December 2020, from https://www.ncvc.dspacedirect.org/handle/20.500.11990/436
Berry, P. E., & Eigenberg, H. M. (2003). Role strain and incarcerated mothers: Understanding the process of mothering. Women and Criminal Justice, 15, 101–119. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v15n01_06
Blanchette, K. (2002). Classifying female offenders for effective intervention: Application of the case-based principles of risk and need. Forum on Corrections Research, 14, 31–35.
Blitz, C. L., Wolff, N., & Shi, J. (2008). Physical victimization in prison: The role of mental illness. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31, 385–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.08.005
Bloom, B. E. & Covington, S. S. (2008). Addressing the mental health needs of women offenders. In Gido, R. L. & Dalley, L. P. (Eds.), Women’s Mental Health Issues Across the Criminal Justice System (pp. 160–176). Prentice Hall.
Blumstein, A. (1986). Criminal careers and “career criminals.” https://doi.org/10.17226/928
Boardman, J. D., & Alexander, K. B. (2011). Stress trajectories, health behaviors, and the mental health of black and white young adults. Social Science and Medicine, 72, 1659–1666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.024
Bronson, J., & Berzofsky, M. (2017). Indicators of mental health problems reported by prisoners and jail inmates, 2011–12. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Bronson, J., & Carson, E. A. (2019). Prisoners in 2017 (NCJ 252156). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Byrne, M. K., & Howells, K. (2002). The psychological needs of women prisoners: Implications for rehabilitation and management. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. https://doi.org/10.1375/pplt.2002.9.1.34
Cahalan, M. W., & Parsons, L. A. (1986). Historical corrections statistics in the United States, 1850–1984 (pp. 1–27). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Carson, A. E. (2018). Prisoners in 2016 (NCJ 251149). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Carson, E. A. (2020). Prisoners in 2018 (NCJ 253516). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2013). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. SAGE Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483387567
Chung, I. J., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Gilchrist, L. D., & Nagin, D. S. (2002). Childhood predictors of offense trajectories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242780203900103
Covington, S. S., & Bloom, B. E. (2007). Gender responsive treatment and services in correctional settings. Women and Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015v29n03_02
DeHart, D. D. (2008). Pathways to prison: Impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women. Violence against Women, 14, 1362–1381.
Dohrenwend, B. S. (1973). Social status and stressful life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035718
Dunbar, A., Brown, R., & Butler, T. (2003). The effects of continuous and repeated incarceration: Depression and hopelessness in long-term prisoners. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55, 101–102.
Erikson, E. H. (1964). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W.W. Norton Company.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R., Williams, J., & Benjamin, L. (1997). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis II personality disorders (SCID-II). American Psychiatric Press.
Gilad, M., & Gat, T. (2013). U.S. v. my mommy: Evaluation of prison nurseries as a solution for children of incarcerated women. NYU Rev. L. & Soc.Change, 37, 371.
Glaze, L. E., & Maruschak, L. M. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children (NCJ 222984). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Glaze, L. E., & Maruschak, L. M. (2016). Parents in prison and their minor children. Issues and lessons for incarcerated and released parents. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Guze, S. B. (1995). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV). American Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.8.1228
Hager, E. (2017). A mass incarceration mystery. The Washington Post.
Hale, R. (2020). Good Intentions: Women’s Narratives of Post-Release Anticipatory Desistance in the Context of Historical and Contemporary Disadvantage and Trauma. Feminist Criminology, 15(5), 519–544.
Harrison, P. M., & Beck, A. J. (2005). Prisoners in 2004 (NCJ 210677). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Hearn, L. E., Whitehead, N. E., Khan, M. R., & Latimer, W. W. (2015). Time since release from incarceration and HIV risk behaviors among women: The potential protective role of committed partners during reentry. AIDS and Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-014-0886-9
Huebner, B. M. (2005). The effect of incarceration on marriage and work over the life course. Justice Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820500089141
James, D. J., & Glaze, L. E. (2006). Mental health problems of prison and jail inmates. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Kasebaum, G. (2017). Women’s prison: Sex and social structure. Routledge.
Kielty, S. (2006). Similarities and differences in the experiences of non-resident mothers and non-resident fathers. International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family. https://doi.org/10.1093/lawfam/ebi033
Kirk, D. S., & Wakefield, S. (2018). Collateral consequences of punishment: A critical review and path forward. Annual Review of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092045
Kriegel, L. S., Hsu, H. T., & Wenzel, S. L. (2015). Personal networks: A hypothesized mediator in the association between incarceration and HIV risk behaviors among women with histories of homelessness. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research. https://doi.org/10.1086/682585
Kruttschnitt, C. (2010). The paradox of women’s imprisonment. Daedalus, 139, 32–42.
Levinson, D. J. (1986). A conception of adult development. American Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.1.3
Lindquist, C. H., & Lindquist, C. A. (1997). Gender differences in distress: Mental health consequences of environmental stress among jail inmates. Behavioral Sciences and the Law. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199723/09)15:4%3c503::AID-BSL281%3e3.0.C.O.;2-H
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2014). Age-crime curve. Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_474
Loper, A. B. (2006). How do mothers in prison differ from non-mothers? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(1), 82–95.
Loper, A. B., Carlson, L. W., Levitt, L., & Scheffel, K. (2009). Parenting stress, alliance, child contact, and adjustment of imprisoned mothers and fathers. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 48, 483–503.
Loper, A. B., & Tuerk, E. H. (2011). Improving the emotional adjustment and communication patterns of incarcerated mothers: Effectiveness of a prison parenting intervention. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 89–101.
Marcus-Mendoza, S. (2015). Incarcerated women in the United States. In Freiburger, T. L. & Marcum, C. D. (Eds.). Women in the criminal justice system: Tracking the journey of females and crime (pp 209–222). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18726
Maruschak, L. M. (2008). Medical problems of prisoners. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Massoglia, M. (2008). Incarceration as exposure: The prison, infectious disease, and other stress-related illnesses. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650804900105
Massoglia, M., Remster, B., & King, R. D. (2011). Stigma or separation? Understanding the incarceration-divorce relationship. Social Forces. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/90.1.133
McGrath, E. (2012). Reentry courts: Providing a second chance for incarcerated mothers and their children. Family Court Review, 50, 113–127.
Messina, N., & Grella, C. (2006). Childhood trauma and women’s health outcomes in a California prison population. American Journal of Public Health. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.082016
Messina, N., Grella, C., Burdon, W., & Prendergast, M. (2007). Childhood adverse events and current traumatic distress: A comparison of men and women drug-dependent prisoners. Criminal Justice and Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854807305150
Metraux, S., Roman, C. G., & Cho, R. S. (2007). Incarceration and homelessness. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. https://www.aspe.hhs.gov/reports/toward-understanding-homelessness-2007-national-symposium-homelessness-research-incarceration-0
Michalsen, V., & Flavin, J. (2014). Not all women are mothers: Addressing the invisibility of women under the control of the criminal justice system who do not have children. The Prison Journal, 94, 328–346.
Nowotny, K. M., Zhao, Q., Kaplan, C., Cepeda, A., & Valdez, A (2016). Gender dynamics of violent acts among gang affiliated young adult Mexican American men. In Global perspectives on youth gang behavior, violence, and weapons use. (pp. 159-173). IGI Global.
O’Keefe, M. L., & Schnell, M. J. (2007). Offenders with mental illness in the correctional system. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v45n01_08
Ono, D. (2015). Los Angeles Men’s Central Jail inmates live in squalid conditions. Eyewitness News, Retrieved December 2020, from https://www.abc7.com/567525/
Roxburgh, S., & Fitch, C. (2014). Parental status, child contact, and well-being among incarcerated men and women. Journal of Family Issues. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13498593
Sabol, W. J., Minton, T. D., & Harrison, P. M. (2007). Prison and jail inmates at midyear 2006. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin.
Schiffmann, T. J., Eddy, J. M., Martinez, C. R., Leve, L., & Newton, R. (2008). Parenting inside out: Parent management training for incarcerated parents in prison. Oregon Social Learning Center and Children’s Justice Alliance.
Schnittker, J., & Bacak, V. (2016). Orange is still pink: Mental illness, gender roles, and physical victimization in prisons. Society and Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869315609733
Schnittker, J., & John, A. (2007). Enduring stigma: The long-term effects of incarceration on health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650704800202
Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2012). Out and down: Incarceration and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146512453928
Sered, S. S., & Norton-Hawk, M. (2019). Women on the institutional circuit: A 9-year qualitative study. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 25, 25–36.
Shlafer, R., Duwe, G., & Hindt, L. (2019). Parents in prison and their minor children: Comparisons between state and national estimates. Prison Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885519836996
Smykla, J. O., & Williams, J. J. (1996). Co-corrections in the united states of America, 1970–1990: Two decades of disadvantages for women prisoners. Women and Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v08n01_04
Sorbello, L., Eccleston, L., Ward, T., & Jones, R. (2002). Treatment needs of female offenders: A review. Australian Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060210001706876
Stein, R. E. (2014). Individual and structural opportunities: A cross-national assessment of females’ physical and sexual assault victimization. International Criminal Justice Review, 24, 392–409.
Travis, J., Western, B., & Redburn, S. (2014). The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18613
Turney, K., & Wildeman, C. (2015). Detrimental for some? Heterogeneous effects of maternal incarceration on child well-being. Criminology and Public Policy. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12109
Vanroelen, C., Levecque, K., & Louckx, F. (2010). Differential exposure and differential vulnerability as counteracting forces linking the psychosocial work environment to socioeconomic health differences. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.087122
Walmsley, R. (2017). World female imprisonment list (fourth edition). Retrieved December 2020, from https://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/world_female_prison_4th_edn_v4_web.pdf
Western, B., & Wildeman, C. (2009). The black family and mass incarceration. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208324850
Wildeman, C., & Turney, K. (2014). Positive, negative, or null? The effects of maternal incarceration on children’s behavioral problems. Demography. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0291-z
Wilper, A. P., Woolhandler, S., Boyd, J. W., Lasser, K. E., McCormick, D., Bor, D. H., & Himmelstein, D. U. (2009). The health and health care of U.S. prisoners: Results of a nationwide survey. American Journal of Public Health. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.144279
Wulf-Ludden, T. (2016). Pseudofamilies, misconduct, and the utility of general strain theory in a women’s prison. Women & Criminal Justice, 26, 233–259.
Zastrow, C., & Kirst-Ashman, K. (2009). Understanding human behavior and the social environment. Cengage Learning.
Zeng, Z. (2018). Jail inmates in 2017 (NCJ 251774). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Zhao, Q., Kim, B. K. E., Li, W., Hsiao, H.-Y., & Rice, E. (2018). Incarceration history social network composition and substance use among homeless youth in Los Angeles. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 37(1–2), 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2018.1545555
Zhao, Q., Afkinich, J. L., & Valdez, A. (2019). Incarceration History and Depressive Symptoms Among Women Released from US Correctional Facilities: Does Timing Duration or Frequency Matter?. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19(2), 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00058-5
Zhao, Q., Cepeda, A., Chou, C.-P., & Valdez, A. (2020). Maternal incarceration trajectories and the intergenerational transmission of imprisonment: A nationwide study. Children and Youth Services Review, 118. https://doi.org/118105461-10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105461
Zhao, Q., Cepeda, A., Chou, C.-P., & Valdez, A. (2021). Incarceration Trajectories of Women Who Are Mothers: A Nationally Representative Study of State and Federal Prisoners. Crime & Delinquency, 67(10), 1513–1535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128720974315
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Informed Consent
All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000 (5). Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhao, Q., Cepeda, A., Chou, CP. et al. Incarceration Trajectories and Mental Health Problems Among Mothers Imprisoned in State and Federal Correctional Facilities: A Nationwide Study. Int J Ment Health Addiction 21, 492–510 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00608-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00608-w