Abstract
The superior grade Daqu (S_Daqu) and normal grade Daqu (N_Daqu) have obvious differences in flavor, fracture surface, appearance, etc., which can be accurately grouped by well-trained panel based on their sensory properties. However, the differences in microbial community diversity and metabolites between the S_Daqu and N_Daqu were still unclear. The culture-dependent method, the third generation Pacific Biosciences (PacBio) single-molecule, real-time (SMRT) sequencing technology, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were combined to show the characteristics in microorganisms and metabolites. Results showed that the fungal counts were higher in N_Daqu while the richness of bacterial communities was higher in S_Daqu (P < 0.05). Lentibacillus, Burkholderia, Saccharopolyspora, Thermoascus, and Rasamsonia were the dominant genera of S_Daqu while Staphylococcus, Scopulibacillus, and Chromocleista were the dominant genera in N_Daqu. The content of differential acids, amino acids, and alcohols including fumarate, glucuronate, glycine, 4-carboxyglutamate, and myo-inositol in S_Daqu was higher than that in N_Daqu by 1H NMR coupled with multivariate statistical analysis. The network analysis regarding microbes and metabolites suggested that Saccharopolyspora showed a strong positive correlation with 4-carboxyglutamate while Thermoascus and Chromocleista were highly negatively correlated with alanine and isobutyrate, respectively. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) Effect Size (LEfSe) revealed that Macrococcus and Caulobacter were regarded as bacterial biomarkers in the S_Daqu while Chromocleista was the key fungal genera in N_Daqu. Functionality prediction indicated that the bacteria in S_Daqu were largely involved in more metabolic activities including biosynthesis, degradation, detoxification, and generation of precursor metabolite and energy.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Cao JL, Yang JX, Hou QC, Xu HY, Zheng Y, Zhang HP, Zhang LB (2017) Assessment of bacterial profiles in aged, home-made Sichuan paocai brine with varying titratable acidity by PacBio SMRT sequencing technology. Food Control 78:14–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.02.006
Du Z, Sun L, Lin Y, Yang F, Cai Y (2021) The use of PacBio SMRT technology to explore the microbial network and fermentation characteristics of woody silage prepared with exogenous carbohydrate additives. J Appl Microbiol 285:2193–2211. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.15124
Fan Y, Huang XN, Chen JY, Han BZ (2020) Formation of a mixed-species biofilm is a survival strategy for unculturable lactic acid bacteria and saccharomyces cerevisiae in Daqu, a Chinese traditional fermentation starter. Front Microbiol 11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00138
Guan TW, Yang H, Ou MY, Zhang JX (2021) Storage period affecting dynamic succession of microbiota and quality changes of strong-flavor Baijiu Daqu. LWT-Food Sci Technol 139:110544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110544
Hu YL, Dun YH, Li SN, Fu B, Xiong XM, Peng N, Liang YX, Zhao SM (2017) Changes in microbial community during fermentation of high-temperature Daqu used in the production of Chinese ‘Baiyunbian’ liquor. J I Brewing 123(4):594–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.455
Hu M, Dong J, Tan GL, Li XY, Zheng ZY, Li M (2021) Metagenomic insights into the bacteria responsible for producing biogenic amines in sufu. Food Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2021.103762
Hua M, Fan ML, Li ZM, Sha JY, Li SS, Sun YS (2021) Ginseng soluble dietary fiber can regulate the intestinal flora structure, promote colon health, affect appetite and glucolipid metabolism in rats. J Funct Food. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2021.104534
Jiang QE, Wu XY, Xu YQ, Zhang YL, Wang ZS, Shen LY, Yang WJ, Sun JY, Liu Y (2021) Microbial composition and dynamic succession during the Daqu production process of Northern Jiang-flavored liquor in China. 3 Biotech 11(5):1–15
Jin GY, Zhu Y, Xu Y (2017) Mystery behind Chinese liquor fermentation. Trends Food Sci Tech 63:18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.02.016
Li J, Wu X (2020) Maturity evaluation and optimum storage time of traditional Feng-type Daqu in post-maturity period. Food Ferment Ind 46(24):97–102
Li RY, Zheng XW, Zhang X, Yan Z, Wang XY, Han BZ (2018) Characterization of bacteria and yeasts isolated from traditional fermentation starter (Fen-Daqu) through a 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach. Food Microbiol 76:11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2018.03.015
Liu HL, Sun BG (2018) Effect of fermentation processing on the flavor of Baijiu. J Agr Food Chem 66:5425–5432. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00692
Lo CF, Yu CY, Kuan IC, Lee SL (2012) Optimization of lipase production by Burkholderia sp. using response surface methodology. Int J Mol Sci 13(11):14889–14897. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms131114889
Ma YM, Liang XA, Kong Y, Jia B (2016) Structural diversity and biological activities of indole diketopiperazine alkaloids from fungi. J Agr Food Chem 64(35):6659–6671. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01772
Martin M (2011) Cutadapt removes adapter sequences from high-throughput sequencing reads. EMBnet 17(1):10–12
Mosher JJ, Bernberg EL, Shevchenko O, Kan J, Kaplan LA (2013) Efficacy of a 3rd generation high-throughput sequencing platform for analyses of 16S rRNA genes from environmental samples. J Microbiol Meth 95(2):175–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2013.08.009
Nishimura A, Itoh H, Oyama H, Murao S, Oda K (2001) A simultaneous assay method for L-glutamate and L-pyroglutamate contents in soy sauce using a 5-oxoprolinase (without ATP hydrolyzing activity). Biosci Biotech Biochem 65(2):477–479. https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.65.477
Pang XN, Huang XN, Chen JY, Yu HX, Wang XY, Han BZ (2020) Exploring the diversity and role of microbiota during material pretreatment of light-flavor Baijiu. Food Microbiol 91:103514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2020.103514
Wang H, Xi DZ, Huang YG, Cao WT et al (2020) Bacterial community structure and diversity in different stacking fermentation rounds in mechanized Maotai-flavor liquor brewing. Food Sci 41:188–195. https://doi.org/10.7506/spkx1002-6630-20181218-202
Wang H, Huang YG, Huang YL (2021a) Microbiome diversity and evolution in stacking fermentation during different rounds of Jiang-flavoured Baijiu brewing. LWT-Food Sci Technol 143:111119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111119
Wang YR, Cai WC, Wang WP, Shu N, Zhang ZD et al (2021) Analysis of microbial diversity and functional differences in different types of high-temperature Daqu. Food Sci Nutr 9(2):1003–1016. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2068
Xie MW, Lv FX, Ma GX, Farooq A, Li HH et al (2020) High throughput sequencing of the bacterial composition and dynamic succession in Daqu for Chinese sesame flavour liquor. J I Brewing 126(1):98–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.592
Yan Z, Zheng XW, Han BZ, Yan YZ, Zhang X, Chen JY (2015) 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach for understanding the fermentation behaviour of Bacillus licheniformis. J I Brewing. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.238
Yan YH, Li XM, Guan H, Huang LK, Ma X et al (2019) Microbial community and fermentation characteristic of Italian ryegrass silage prepared with corn stover and lactic acid bacteria. Bioresource Technol 279:166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.01.107
Zhang QQ, Li D, Zhang W, Jiang M, Chen XH, Dong MS (2021b) Comparative analysis of the bacterial diversity of Chinese fermented sausages using high-throughput sequencing. LWT-Food Sci Technol 150:111975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111975
Zhang LQ, Wu CD, Ding XF, Zheng J, Zhou RQ (2014) Characterisation of microbial communities in Chinese liquor fermentation starters Daqu using nested PCR-DGGE. J Microbiol Biotechn 30(12):3055–3063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-014-1732-y
Zhang HX, Wang L, Wang HY, Yang F, Chen LL et al (2021) Effects of initial temperature on microbial community succession rate and volatile flavors during Baijiu fermentation process. Food Res Int 141:109887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109887
Zhang YD, Shen Y, Cheng W, Wang X, Xue YS, Chen XX, Han BZ (2021) Understanding the shifts of microbial community and metabolite profile from wheat to mature Daqu. Front Microbiol 12:1–13
Zheng XW, Tabrizi MR, Robert Nout MJ, Han BZ (2011) Daqu-a traditional Chinese liquor fermentation starter. J I Brewing 117:82–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2011.tb00447.x
Zheng XW, Yan Z, Nout MJR, Boekhout T, Han BZ, Zwietering MH, Smid EJ (2015) Characterization of the microbial community in different types of Daqu samples as revealed by 16S rRNA and 26S rRNA gene clone libraries. World J Microb Biot 31(1):199–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-014-1776-z
Zuo QC, Huang YG, Min G (2020) Evaluation of bacterial diversity during fermentation process: a comparison between handmade and machine-made higherature Daqu of Maotai-flavor liquor. Ann Microbiol 70:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13213-020-01598-1
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Shanghai Personal Biotechnology Co., Ltd., for providing us with the technical support in bioinformatics.
Funding
This work was supported by China Alcoholic Drinks Association (The shifts and roles of wheat microbiota in making process of high-temperature Daqu).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
YZ: Conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, methodology, investigation, data curation, visualization, software, writing-original, writing-review & editing. FD, YS, and WC: Revision. XC: Project administration and supervision. YX: Revision. BZH: Resources and funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, Y., Ding, F., Shen, Y. et al. Characteristics of the microbiota and metabolic profile of high-temperature Daqu with different grades. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 38, 137 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-022-03303-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-022-03303-7