Abstract
Piles supporting large structures are often subjected to cyclic lateral loads due to natural phenomena, including earthquakes, winds, and waves. Such loads are main causes of progressive deterioration in the stiffness and reduce the lateral capacity of piles. However, the effects of unsaturated soil conditions on the lateral cyclic response of piles are not yet fully understood, and the p–y curves used in engineering practice are merely based on the assumption of full saturation or complete dry conditions. This study is aimed to investigate the pile performance under unsaturated soil conditions by performing monotonic, cyclic, and post-cyclic loading tests on piles installed in sand with a varying water table. A loading system was designed and constructed to carry out different types of cyclic loadings. It was observed that the lateral capacity of the pile is influenced by the average suction stress along the pile which increases with the depth of the water table. During the cyclic loading, gap formation is noticed around the pile head for tests conducted in unsaturated conditions, which results in significant stiffness degradation compared to the saturated state. However, post-cyclic loading tests showed that the ultimate lateral capacity of the pile is not affected by the cyclic loading history. Finally, a modified p–y curve is proposed for the piles embedded in unsaturated sandy soils, and a comparison of its performance with the observed results is promising.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All data is available and embodied in the paper itself.
References
Abadie C (2015) Cyclic lateral loading of monopile foundations in cohesionless soils. Doctoral dissertation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Al-Khazaali M, Vanapalli SK (2019) Experimental investigation of single model pile and pile group behavior in saturated and unsaturated sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 145(12):04019112. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002176
Alonso EE, Gens A, Josa A (1990) A constitutive model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40(3):405–430. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.405
Api R (2000) Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms-working stress design. API RP A 2
Arshad M, O’Kelly BC (2014) Development of a rig to study model pile behaviour under repeating lateral loads. Int J Phys Model Geotech 14(3):54–66. https://doi.org/10.1680/ijpmg.13.00015
ASTM D (2008) Standard test methods for determination of the soil water characteristic curve for desorption using a hanging column, pressure extractor, chilled mirror hygrometer, and/or centrifuge. D6836
Awad-Allah MF, Yasufuku N, Abdel-Rahman AH (2017) Cyclic response of wind turbine on piles in unsaturated sand. Int J Phys Model Geotech 17(3):161–176. https://doi.org/10.1680/jphmg.15.00017
Azizi A, Kumar A, Toll DG (2023) Coupling cyclic and water retention response of a clayey sand subjected to traffic and environmental cycles. Géotechnique 73(5):401–417. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.21.00063
Basack S (2015) Design recommendations for pile subjected to cyclic load. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 33(4):356–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2013.778378
Basack S, Dey S (2012) Influence of relative pile-soil stiffness and load eccentricity on single pile response in sand under lateral cyclic loading. Geotech Geol Eng 30(4):737–751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-011-9490-1
Basack S, Nimbalkar S (2018) Measured and predicted response of pile groups in soft clay subjected to cyclic lateral loading. Int J Geomech 18(7):04018073. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001188
Basack S, Purkayastha R (2007) Behaviour of single pile under lateral cyclic load in marine clay. Asian J Civil Eng (build Hous) 8(4):443–458
Bolton M (1986) The strength and dilatancy of sands. Geotechniqué 36(1):65–78. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1986.36.1.65
Broms BB (1964a) Lateral resistance of piles in cohesionless soils. J Soil Mech Found Div 90(3):123–156. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0000614
Broms BB (1964b) Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils. J Soil Mech Found Div 90(2):27–63. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0000611
Chandrasekaran SS, Boominathan A, Dodagoudar GR (2010) Experimental investigations on the behaviour of pile groups in clay under lateral cyclic loading. Geotech Geol Eng 28(5):603–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-010-9318-4
Chang Y (1937) Discussion on lateral pile-loading tests by Feagin, ASCE, pp 272–278
Cheng X, El Naggar MH, Lu D et al (2022) A cyclic py elastoplastic model applied to lateral loaded pile in soft clays. Can Geotech J 60(6):885–901. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2022-0314
Choi JI, Kim MM, Brandenberg SJ (2015) Cyclic p–y plasticity model applied to pile foundations in sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 141(5):04015013. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001261
Choo YW, Kim D (2016) Experimental development of the p–y relationship for large-diameter offshore monopiles in sands: centrifuge tests. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 142(1):04015058. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001373
Consoli NC, Diambra A, Cordeiro RE et al (2023) Field and numerical analysis of cyclic displacement controlled lateral load Tests on driven piles in a residual soil. Geotech Geol Eng 41(2):685–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-022-02295-3
Darvishi Alamouti S, Moradi M, Bahaari MR (2019) Centrifuge modelling of monopiles subjected to lateral loading. Scientia Iranica 26(6):3109–3124. https://doi.org/10.24200/sci.2018.20222
Dietrich T (1982) Incremental parabolic hardening of psammic material; Application to laterally loaded piles in sand, Deformation and failure of granular materials. Balkema, pp 13–22
El Sharnouby M, El Naggar M (2012) Field investigation of axial monotonic and cyclic performance of reinforced helical pulldown micropiles. Can Geotech J 49(5):560–573. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-017
Faresghoshooni A, Imam S, Mahmoodi A (2021) Model testing on the effects of section geometry and stiffness on the cyclic lateral behavior of piles in loose sand. Int J Civil Eng 19(5):563–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-020-00548-x
Frick D, Achmus M (2020) An experimental study on the parameters affecting the cyclic lateral response of monopiles for offshore wind turbines in sand. Soils Found 60(6):1570–1587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2020.10.004
Georgiadis M, Anagnostopoulos C, Saflekou S (1992) Centrifugal testing of laterally loaded piles in sand. Can Geotech J 29(2):208–216. https://doi.org/10.1139/t92-024
He B, Wang L, Hong Y (2017) Field testing of one-way and two-way cyclic lateral responses of single and jet-grouting reinforced piles in soft clay. Acta Geotech 12(5):1021–1034. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-016-0515-z
Hong Y, He B, Wang LZ et al (2017) Cyclic lateral response and failure mechanisms of semi-rigid pile in soft clay: centrifuge tests and numerical modelling. Can Geotech J 54(6):806–824. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0356
Huang Y, Cheng H, Osada T et al (2015) Mechanical behavior of clean sand at low confining pressure: verification with element and model tests. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 141(8):06015005. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001330
Khari M, Kassim KA, Adnan A (2013) An experimental study on pile spacing effects under lateral loading in sand. Sci World J. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/734292
Kimoto S, Oka F, Fukutani J (2011) Monotonic and cyclic behavior of unsaturated sandy soil under drained and fully undrained conditions. Soils Found 51(4):663–681. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.51.663
Klinkvort RT, Hededal O, Springman SM (2013) Scaling issues in centrifuge modelling of monopiles. Int J Phys Model Geotech 13(2):38–49. https://doi.org/10.1680/ijpmg.12.00010
Komolafe O, Ghayoomi M (2023) Conceptual p–y curve framework for a single pile in cohesionless soils with variable degrees of saturation. Geotech Geol Eng 41(3):2127–2151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02394-9
Lalicata LM, Desideri A, Casini F (2019) Experimental observation on laterally loaded pile in unsaturated silty soil. Can Geotech J 56(11):1545–1556. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2018-0322
LeBlanc C, Houlsby G, Byrne B (2010) Response of stiff piles in sand to long-term cyclic lateral loading. Géotechnique 60(2):79–90. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.7.00196
Li W, Zhu B, Yang M (2017) Static response of monopile to lateral load in overconsolidated dense sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 143(7):04017026. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001698
Long J, Vanneste G (1994) Effects of cyclic lateral loads on piles in sand. J Geotech Eng 120(1):225–244. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:1(225)
Lu N, Likos WJ (2004) Unsaturated soil mechanics. John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken
Lu N, Likos WJ (2006) Suction stress characteristic curve for unsaturated soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132(2):131–142. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:2(131)
Machmer BM (2012) Understanding the behavior of a pile foundation in unsaturated soils subjected to lateral loading. Doctoral dissertation, Clemson University
Matlock H (1970) Correlation for design of laterally loaded piles in soft clay, Offshore technology conference. OnePetro
Ng CWW, Zhou C (2014) Cyclic behaviour of an unsaturated silt at various suctions and temperatures. Geotechniqué 64(9):709–720. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.14.P.015
Nip D, Ng CWW (2005) Back-analysis of laterally loaded bored piles. Proc Inst Civil Eng-Geotech Eng 158(2):63–73. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2005.158.2.63
Oh WT, Vanapalli SK (2013) Interpretation of the bearing capacity of unsaturated fine-grained soil using the modified effective and the modified total stress approaches. Int J Geomech 13(6):769–778. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000263
Oh WT, Vanapalli SK, Puppala AJ (2009) Semi-empirical model for the prediction of modulus of elasticity for unsaturated soils. Can Geotech J 46(8):903–914. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-030
Owji R, Habibagahi G, Veiskarami M (2023) Effects of cyclic and post-cyclic loading on lateral response of flexible piles embedded in dry sand. Int J Civil Eng 21(4):633–645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-022-00790-5
Phanikanth V, Choudhury D, Srinivas K (2013) Response of flexible piles under lateral loads. Indian Geotech J 43(1):76–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-012-0030-6
Poulos HG, Hull TS (1989) The role of analytical geomechanics in foundation engineering, Foundation engineering: Current principles and practices. ASCE, pp 1578–1606
Randolph MF (1981) The response of flexible piles to lateral loading. Geotechnique 31(2):247–259. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1981.31.2.247
Rathod D, Krishnanunni K, Nigitha D (2020) A review on conventional and innovative pile system for offshore wind turbines. Geotech Geol Eng 38(4):3385–3402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-020-01254-0
Reese LC, Van Impe WF (2000) Single piles and pile groups under lateral loading. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Thieken K, Achmus M, Lemke K (2015) A new static p–y approach for piles with arbitrary dimensions in sand. Geotechnik 38(4):267–288. https://doi.org/10.1002/gete.201400036
Van Genuchten MT (1980) A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 44(5):892–898
Vanapalli SK, Fredlund DG, Pufahl DE (1996) The relationship between the soil-water characteristic curve and the unsaturated shear strength of a compacted glacial till. Geotech Test J 19(3):259–268. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10351J
Vesić AB (1961) Bending of beams resting on isotropic elastic solid. J Eng Mech Div 87(2):35–53. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEA3.0000212
Wang T, Liu W (2016) Development of cyclic p–y curves for laterally loaded pile based on T-bar penetration tests in clay. Can Geotech J 53(10):1731–1741. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2015-0358
Wood DM, Crewe A, Taylor C (2002) Shaking table testing of geotechnical models. Int J Phys Model Geotech 2(1):01–13. https://doi.org/10.1680/ijpmg.2002.020101
Yang K, Liang R (2007) Methods for deriving py curves from instrumented lateral load tests. Geotech Test J 30(1):31–38. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ100317
Yoshida I, Yoshinaka R (1972) A method to estimate modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction for a pile. Soils Found 12(3):1–17. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.12.3_1
Zhang L, Silva F, Grismala R (2005) Ultimate lateral resistance to piles in cohesionless soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE 131(1):78–83. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:1(78)
Funding
There is no funding available.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest in this paper at all.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Supplementary file 2 (MP4 14095 kb)
Appendix
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Owji, R., Habibagahi, G. & Veiskarami, M. An Experimental Study on the Lateral Behavior of Piles in Unsaturated Sand Under Monotonic, Cyclic and Post Cyclic Loading. Geotech Geol Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02723-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02723-y