Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is a common intestinal parasite in various hosts, with the disease giardiasis being a zoonosis. The use of molecular typing tools has improved our understanding of the distribution and zoonotic potential of G. duodenalis genotypes in different animals. The present review summarizes recent data on the distribution of G. duodenalis genotypes in humans and animals in different areas. The dominance of G. duodenalis assemblages A and B in humans and common occurrence of host-adapted assemblages in most domesticated animals suggests that zoonotic giardiasis is probably less common than believed and could be attributed mainly to contact with or contamination from just a few species of animals such as nonhuman primates, equines, rabbits, guinea pigs, chinchillas, and beavers. Future studies should be directed to advanced genetic characterization of isolates from well-designed epidemiological investigations, especially comparative analyses of isolates from humans and animals living in the same household or community. This will likely lead to better understanding of zoonotic transmission of G. duodenalis in different environmental and socioeconomic settings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel-Moein KA, Saeed H (2016) The zoonotic potential of Giardia intestinalis assemblage E in rural settings. Parasitol Res 115(8):3197–3202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-5081-7
Abe N, Tanoue T, Noguchi E, Ohta G, Sakai H (2010) Molecular characterization of Giardia duodenalis isolates from domestic ferrets. Parasitol Res 106(3):733–736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009-1703-7
Abeywardena H, Jex AR, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Haydon SR, Stevens MA, Gasser RB (2013) First molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from Bubalus bubalis (water buffalo) in Victoria, Australia. Infect Genet Evol 20:96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2013.07.019
Abeywardena H, et al (2014) First molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from bovines (Bos taurus and Bubalus bubalis) in Sri Lanka: unexpected absence of C. parvum from pre-weaned calves. Parasit Vectors 7:75. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-75
Adam RD (2021) Giardia duodenalis: biology and pathogenesis. Clin Microbiol Rev. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00024-19
Adell AD, Smith WA, Shapiro K, Melli A, Conrad PA (2014) Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in mussels (Mytilus californianus) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) from Central California. Appl Environ Microbiol 80(24):7732–40. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02922-14
Adell-Aledon M et al (2018) Occurrence and molecular epidemiology of Giardia duodenalis infection in dog populations in eastern Spain. BMC Vet Res 14(1):26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-018-1353-z
Adriana G, Zsuzsa K, Mirabela Oana D, Mircea GC, Viorica M (2016) Giardia duodenalis genotypes in domestic and wild animals from Romania identified by PCR-RFLP targeting the gdh gene. Vet Parasitol 217:71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.10.017
Akinkuotu OA, Greenwood SJ, McClure JT, Takeet MI, Otesile EB, Olufemi F (2018) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis infecting rabbits in Ogun State, Nigeria. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Rep 13:171–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2018.06.005
Akinkuotu OA, Takeet MI, Otesile EB, Olufemi F, Greenwood SJ, McClure JT (2019) Prevalence and multilocus genotypes of Giardia duodenalis infecting pigs in Ogun state, Nigeria. Infect Genet Evol 70:53–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2019.02.017
Ankarklev J, Svard SG, Lebbad M (2012) Allelic sequence heterozygosity in single Giardia parasites. BMC Microbiol 12:65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-12-65
Ankarklev J et al (2018) A novel high-resolution multilocus sequence typing of Giardia intestinalis assemblage A isolates reveals zoonotic transmission, clonal outbreaks and recombination. Infect Genet Evol 60:7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2018.02.012
Anuar TS, Azreen SN, Salleh FM, Moktar N (2014) Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis among Orang Asli in Malaysia: application of the triosephosphate isomerase gene. BMC Infect Dis 14:78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-78
Baldursson S, Karanis P (2011) Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks—an update 2004–2010. Water Res 45(20):6603–6614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.10.013
Bartley PM et al (2019) Detection of potentially human infectious assemblages of Giardia duodenalis in fecal samples from beef and dairy cattle in Scotland. Parasitology 146(9):1123–1130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182018001117
Beck R, Sprong H, Bata I, Lucinger S, Pozio E, Caccio SM (2011a) Prevalence and molecular typing of Giardia spp. in captive mammals at the zoo of Zagreb, Croatia. Vet Parasitol 175(1–2):40–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.09.026
Beck R, Sprong H, Lucinger S, Pozio E, Caccio SM (2011b) A large survey of Croatian wild mammals for Giardia duodenalis reveals a low prevalence and limited zoonotic potential. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11(8):1049–1055. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2010.0113
Bemrick WJ, Erlandsen SL (1988) Giardiasis–is it really a zoonosis? Parasitol Today 4(3):69–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(88)90198-6
Benhassine S et al (2020) Occurrence and molecular characterization of Giardia duodenalis in lambs in Djelfa, the central steppe of Algeria. Parasitol Res 119(9):2965–2973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-020-06808-y
Berrilli F et al (2012) Giardia duodenalis genotypes and Cryptosporidium species in humans and domestic animals in Cote d’Ivoire: occurrence and evidence for environmental contamination. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 106(3):191–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2011.12.005
Bouzid M, Halai K, Jeffreys D, Hunter PR (2015) The prevalence of Giardia infection in dogs and cats, a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies from stool samples. Vet Parasitol 207(3–4):181–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.12.011
Broglia A, Weitzel T, Harms G, Caccio SM, Nockler K (2013) Molecular typing of Giardia duodenalis isolates from German travellers. Parasitol Res 112(10):3449–3456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3524-y
Brynildsrud O, Tysnes KR, Robertson LJ, Debenham JJ (2018) Giardia duodenalis in primates: classification and host specificity based on phylogenetic analysis of sequence data. Zoonoses Public Health 65(6):637–647. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12470
Budu-Amoako E, Greenwood SJ, Dixon BR, Barkema HW, McClure JT (2012a) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia on beef farms and water sources within the vicinity of the farms on Prince Edward Island, Canada. Vet Parasitol 184(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.10.027
Budu-Amoako E et al (2012b) Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in humans on Prince Edward Island, Canada: evidence of zoonotic transmission from cattle. Zoonoses Public Health 59(6):424–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2012.01474.x
Buret A, denHollander N, Wallis PM, Befus D, Olson ME (1990) Zoonotic potential of giardiasis in domestic ruminants. J Infect Dis 162(1):231–237. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/162.1.231
Caccio SM, Beck R, Lalle M, Marinculic A, Pozio E (2008) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis reveals striking differences between assemblages A and B. Int J Parasitol 38(13):1523–1531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.04.008
Caccio SM, Lalle M, Svard SG (2018) Host specificity in the Giardia duodenalis species complex. Infect Genet Evol 66:335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2017.12.001
Capewell P, Krumrie S, Katzer F, Alexander CL, Weir W (2021) Molecular epidemiology of Giardia Infections in the genomic era. Trends Parasitol 37(2):142–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2020.09.013
Cardona GA, de Lucio A, Bailo B, Cano L, de Fuentes I, Carmena D (2015) Unexpected finding of feline-specific Giardia duodenalis assemblage F and Cryptosporidium felis in asymptomatic adult cattle in Northern Spain. Vet Parasitol 209(3–4):258–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.02.028
Castro-Hermida JA, Garcia-Presedo I, Almeida A, Gonzalez-Warleta M, Correia Da Costa JM, Mezo M (2011) Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in two areas of Galicia (NW Spain). Sci Total Environ 409(13):2451–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.03.010
Chen D et al (2019a) Occurrence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in black-boned sheep and goats in southwestern China. Parasit Vectors 12(1):102. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3367-1
Chen L et al (2019b) Genotypes and public health potential of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in crab-eating macaques. Parasit Vectors 12(1):254. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3511-y
Choy SH, Mahdy MA, Al-Mekhlafi HM, Low VL, Surin J (2015) Population expansion and gene flow in Giardia duodenalis as revealed by triosephosphate isomerase gene. Parasit Vectors 8:454. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-1084-y
Cicek C, Sakru N (2015) Genotyping of Giardia intestinalis isolates in the Thrace Region. Turkey Mikrobiyol Bul 49(4):576–585. https://doi.org/10.5578/mb.10107
Connaughton D (1989) Giardiasis--zoonosis or not? J Am Vet Med Assoc 194(4):447–9, 451
Cooper MA, Adam RD, Worobey M, Sterling CR (2007) Population genetics provides evidence for recombination in Giardia. Curr Biol 17(22):1984–1988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.020
Correa CRT, Oliveira-Arbex AP, David EB, Guimaraes S (2020) Genetic analysis of Giardia duodenalis isolates from children of low-income families living in an economically successful region in Southeastern Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 62:e20. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-9946202062020
Costache C et al (2020) First multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of Giardia duodenalis isolates from humans in Romania. Parasit Vectors 13(1):387. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04248-2
Coupe A et al (2018) First report of Toxoplasma gondii sporulated oocysts and Giardia duodenalis in commercial green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) in New Zealand. Parasitol Res 117(5):1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-018-5832-8
Cui Z et al (2018) Genetic characteristics and geographic segregation of Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle from Guangdong Province, southern China. Infect Genet Evol 66:95–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2018.09.019
Dan J et al (2019) Occurrence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis from post-weaned dairy calves in Sichuan Province. China Plos One 14(11):e0224627. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224627
David EB, Patti M, Coradi ST, Oliveira-Sequeira TC, Ribolla PE, Guimaraes S (2014) Molecular typing of Giardia duodenalis isolates from nonhuman primates housed in a Brazilian zoo. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 56(1):49–54. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0036-46652014000100007
de Aquino MCC et al (2020) Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Front Vet Sci 7:557967. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.557967
de Lucio A et al (2015) Molecular genotyping of Giardia duodenalis isolates from symptomatic individuals attending two major public hospitals in Madrid. Spain Plos One 10(12):e0143981. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143981
Delport TC, Asher AJ, Beaumont LJ, Webster KN, Harcourt RG, Power ML (2014) Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium occurrence in Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) exposed to varied levels of human interaction. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 3(3):269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.09.001
Demircan K et al (2019) First molecular detection and phylogenetic analyses of zoonotic Giardia intestinalis in horses in Turkey. J Equine Vet Sci 80:56–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2019.06.017
Deng L et al (2017) Prevalence and molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis in racehorses from the Sichuan province of southwestern China. PLoS ONE 12(12):e0189728. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189728
Deng L et al (2018) First identification and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in pet chipmunks (Eutamias asiaticus) in Sichuan Province, southwestern China. Parasit Vectors 11(1):199. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2790-z
Dixon BR (2021) Giardia duodenalis in humans and animals - Transmission and disease. Res Vet Sci 135:283–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.09.034
Dong H, et al (2021) Molecular Identification of Cryptosporidium spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Giardia duodenalis in captive pet birds in Henan province, central China. J Eukaryot Microbiol 68(2):e12839. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeu.12839
Durigan M et al (2017) Population genetic analysis of Giardia duodenalis: genetic diversity and haplotype sharing between clinical and environmental sources. Microbiologyopen. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.424
Durigan M et al (2018) Molecular genotyping, diversity studies and high-resolution molecular markers unveiled by microsatellites in Giardia duodenalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 12(11):e0006928. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006928
Eckert J, Wolff K (1979) Giardiasis (lambliasis)–a zoonosis? (author’s transl). Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 68(45):1471–1472
Efstratiou A, Ongerth JE, Karanis P (2017) Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks - an update 2011–2016. Water Res 114:14–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.036
Einarsson E, Ma’ayeh S, Svard SG (2016) An up-date on Giardia and giardiasis. Curr Opin Microbiol 34:47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2016.07.019
Fantinatti M, Bello AR, Fernandes O, Da-Cruz AM (2016) Identification of Giardia lamblia assemblage E in humans points to a new anthropozoonotic cycle. J Infect Dis 214(8):1256–1259. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw361
Farzan A, et al (2011) Detection and characterization of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. on swine farms in Ontario, Canada. Foodborne Pathog Dis 8(11):1207–13. https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2011.0907
Faubert GM (1988) Evidence that giardiasis is a zoonosis. Parasitol Today 4(3):66–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(88)90197-4
Feng Y, Xiao L (2011) Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 24(1):110–140. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00033-10
Feng Y, et al. (2019) Prevalence and genotypic identification of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in pre-weaned dairy calves in Guangdong, China. Parasit Vectors 12(1):41.https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3310-5
Fernandez-Alvarez A et al (2014) Identification of a novel assemblage G subgenotype and a zoonotic assemblage B in rodent isolates of Giardia duodenalis in the Canary Islands. Spain Parasitology 141(2):206–215. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003118201300139X
Foronda P et al (2008) Identification of genotypes of Giardia intestinalis of human isolates in Egypt. Parasitol Res 103(5):1177–1181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-008-1113-2
Franzen O et al (2009) Draft genome sequencing of Giardia intestinalis assemblage B isolate GS: is human giardiasis caused by two different species? PLoS Pathog 5(8):e1000560. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000560
Gabin-Garcia LB, Bartolome C, Abal-Fabeiro JL, Mendez S, Llovo J, Maside X (2017) Strong genetic structure revealed by multilocus patterns of variation in Giardia duodenalis isolates of patients from Galicia (NW-Iberian Peninsula). Infect Genet Evol 48:131–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.12.014
Garcia RJ, et al (2021) First report of novel assemblages and mixed infections of Giardia duodenalis in human isolates from New Zealand. Acta Trop. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.105969
Garcia-Cervantes PC et al (2017) Giardia duodenalis genotypes among schoolchildren and their families and pets in urban and rural areas of Sinaloa, Mexico. J Infect Dev Ctries 11(2):180–187. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.8223
Garcia-Presedo I, et al. (2013) The first report of Cryptosporidium bovis, C. ryanae and Giardia duodenalis sub-assemblage A-II in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Spain. Vet Parasitol 197(3–4):658–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.07.002
Gasser RB (1990) Is giardiasis a zoonosis? Aust Vet J 67(12):456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1990.tb03064.x
Geurden T, Thomas P, Casaert S, Vercruysse J, Claerebout E (2008) Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in lambs and goat kids in Belgium. Vet Parasitol 155(1–2):142–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.05.002
Gherman CM, Kalmar Z, Gyorke A, Mircean V (2018) Occurrence of Giardia duodenalis assemblages in farmed long-tailed chinchillas Chinchilla lanigera (Rodentia) from Romania. Parasit Vectors 11(1):86. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2652-8
Giangaspero A, Papini R, Marangi M, Koehler AV, Gasser RB (2014) Cryptosporidium parvum genotype IIa and Giardia duodenalis assemblage A in Mytilus galloprovincialis on sale at local food markets. Int J Food Microbiol 171:62–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.11.022
Gil H et al (2017) Detection and molecular diversity of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in sheltered dogs and cats in northern Spain. Infect Genet Evol 50:62–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2017.02.013
Gomez-Munoz MT et al (2012) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in lambs from Spain reveals a high heterogeneity. Res Vet Sci 93(2):836–842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.12.012
Gultekin M, Ural K, Aysul N, Ayan A, Balikci C, Akyildiz G (2017) Prevalence and molecular characterization of Giardia duodenalis in dogs in Aydin, Turkey. Int J Environ Health Res 27(3):161–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2017.1310187
Hanevik K, Bakken R, Brattbakk HR, Saghaug CS, Langeland N (2015) Whole genome sequencing of clinical isolates of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Infect 21(2):192e1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2014.08.014
Helmy YA et al (2014) Epidemiology of Giardia duodenalis infection in ruminant livestock and children in the Ismailia province of Egypt: insights by genetic characterization. Parasit Vectors 7:321. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-321
Hillman AE, Ash AL, Lymbery AJ, Thompson RCA (2019) Anthropozoonotic significance, risk factors and spatial distribution of Giardia spp. infections in quenda (Isoodon obesulus) in the greater Perth region, Western Australia. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 9:42–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2019.03.019
Hoopes J et al (2015) Enteric parasites of free-roaming, owned, and rural cats in prairie regions of Canada. Can Vet J 56(5):495–501
Huey CS et al (2013) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Malaysia. Infect Genet Evol 17:269–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2013.04.013
Inpankaew T et al (2014) Low risk for transmission of zoonotic Giardia duodenalis from dogs to humans in rural Cambodia. Parasit Vectors 7:412. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-412
Iwashita H, et al (2021) Molecular epidemiology of Giardia spp. in northern Vietnam: potential transmission between animals and humans. Parasit Epidemiol Control 12:e00193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parepi.2020.e00193
Jerlstrom-Hultqvist J et al (2010) Genome analysis and comparative genomics of a Giardia intestinalis assemblage E isolate. BMC Genomics 11:543. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-11-543
Jian Y et al (2021) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in wild birds from Qinghai Lake on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. Parasitol Res 120(2):615–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-020-06993-w
Jiang J et al (2018) Prevalence and risk factors of Giardia duodenalis in domestic rabbbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Jilin and Liaoning province, northeastern China. J Infect Public Health 11(5):723–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2018.02.008
Jin Y et al (2017) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Tibetan sheep and yaks in Qinghai, China. Vet Parasitol 247:70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.09.021
Jing B et al (2019) Detection and genetic characterization of Giardia duodenalis in pigs from large-scale farms in Xinjiang, China. Parasite 26:53. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2019056
Johansen KM et al (2014) Characterization of Giardia lamblia genotypes in dogs from Tucson, Arizona using SSU-rRNA and beta-giardin sequences. Parasitol Res 113(1):387–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3666-y
Karim MR et al (2015) Multi-locus analysis of Giardia duodenalis from nonhuman primates kept in zoos in China: geographical segregation and host-adaptation of assemblage B isolates. Infect Genet Evol 30:82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2014.12.013
Karim MR, et al. (2014) Multilocus typing of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis from non-human primates in China. Int J Parasitol 44(13):1039–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2014.07.006
Kasprzak W, Pawlowski Z (1989) Zoonotic aspects of giardiasis: a review. Vet Parasitol 32(2–3):101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(89)90110-6
Khan SM, Debnath C, Pramanik AK, Xiao L, Nozaki T, Ganguly S (2011) Molecular evidence for zoonotic transmission of Giardia duodenalis among dairy farm workers in West Bengal, India. Vet Parasitol 178(3–4):342–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.01.029
Kirk MD et al (2015) World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 22 foodborne bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases, 2010: a data synthesis. PLoS Med 12(12):e1001921. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001921
Kooyman FNJ, Wagenaar JA, Zomer A (2019) Whole-genome sequencing of dog-specific assemblages C and D of Giardia duodenalis from single and pooled cysts indicates host-associated genes. Microb Genom. https://doi.org/10.1099/mgen.0.000302
Koster PC et al (2021) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in mostly asymptomatic indigenous people from the Tapirape Tribe. Pathogens, Brazilian Amazon. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020206
Kostopoulou D et al (2015) The occurrence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in foals in Belgium, The Netherlands. Germany and Greece Vet Parasitol 211(3–4):170–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.04.018
Kostopoulou D et al (2017) Abundance, zoonotic potential and risk factors of intestinal parasitism amongst dog and cat populations: the scenario of Crete, Greece. Parasit Vectors 10(1):43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-1989-8
Kosuwin R, Putaporntip C, Pattanawong U, Jongwutiwes S (2010) Clonal diversity in Giardia duodenalis isolates from Thailand: evidences for intragenic recombination and purifying selection at the beta giardin locus. Gene 449(1–2):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2009.09.010
Kvac M et al (2017) Stray cats are more frequently infected with zoonotic protists than pet cats. Folia Parasitol (praha). https://doi.org/10.14411/fp.2017.034
Lalle M, Hanevik K (2018) Treatment-refractory giardiasis: challenges and solutions. Infect Drug Resist 11:1921–1933. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S141468
Lalle M, Pozio E, Capelli G, Bruschi F, Crotti D, Caccio SM (2005) Genetic heterogeneity at the beta-giardin locus among human and animal isolates of Giardia duodenalis and identification of potentially zoonotic subgenotypes. Int J Parasitol 35(2):207–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.10.022
Lalle M, Bruschi F, Castagna B, Campa M, Pozio E, Caccio SM (2009) High genetic polymorphism among Giardia duodenalis isolates from Sahrawi children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103(8):834–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2009.04.017
Lam HYP, Chen TT, Tseng YC, Chang KC, Yang TH, Peng SY (2020) Detection and genotyping of Giardia duodenalis from cattle and pigs in Hualien country, Eastern Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.05.009
Lasek-Nesselquist E et al (2008) Molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis haplotypes in marine animals: variation and zoonotic potential. Dis Aquat Organ 81(1):39–51. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao01931
Lasek-Nesselquist E, Welch DM, Sogin ML (2010) The identification of a new Giardia duodenalis assemblage in marine vertebrates and a preliminary analysis of G. duodenalis population biology in marine systems. Int J Parasitol 40(9):1063–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.02.015
Leal DAG et al (2018) Genotypic characterization and assessment of infectivity of human waterborne pathogens recovered from oysters and estuarine waters in Brazil. Water Res 137:273–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.024
Lebbad M et al (2010) From mouse to moose: multilocus genotyping of Giardia isolates from various animal species. Vet Parasitol 168(3–4):231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.11.003
Lebbad M et al (2011) Multilocus genotyping of human Giardia isolates suggests limited zoonotic transmission and association between assemblage B and flatulence in children. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5(8):e1262. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001262
Lee MF, Cadogan P, Eytle S, Copeland S, Walochnik J, Lindo JF (2017) Molecular epidemiology and multilocus sequence analysis of potentially zoonotic Giardia spp. from humans and dogs in Jamaica. Parasitol Res 116(1):409–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-5304-y
Lee H et al (2020) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis from pigs in Korea. Parasitol Int 78:102154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2020.102154
Levecke B et al (2009) Molecular characterisation of Giardia duodenalis in captive non-human primates reveals mixed assemblage A and B infections and novel polymorphisms. Int J Parasitol 39(14):1595–1601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2009.05.013
Levecke B, Meulemans L, Dalemans T, Casaert S, Claerebout E, Geurden T (2011) Mixed Giardia duodenalis assemblage A, B, C and E infections in pet chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera) in Flanders (Belgium). Vet Parasitol 177(1–2):166–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.11.027
Li J, et al (2015a) Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in captive wildlife at Zhengzhou Zoo, China. J Eukaryot Microbiol 62(6):833–839. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeu.12269
Li W et al (2015b) Prevalence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in cats and dogs in Heilongjiang province, China. Vet Parasitol 208(3–4):125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.01.014
Li F et al (2016) Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle in Beijing. China Vet Parasitol 219:61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.01.023
Li W et al (2017) Presence of zoonotic Cryptosporidium scrofarum, Giardia duodenalis assemblage A and Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in captive Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) in China: potential for zoonotic transmission. Parasit Vectors 10(1):10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1942-2
Li W, Liu X, Gu Y, Liu J, Luo J (2019) Prevalence of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Blastocystis, and trichomonads in domestic cats in East China. J Vet Med Sci 81(6):890–896. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.19-0111
Li F, Wang R, Guo Y, Li N, Feng Y, Xiao L (2020a) Zoonotic potential of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in horses and donkeys in northern China. Parasitol Res 119(3):1101–1108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-020-06612-8
Li TS et al (2020b) Prevalence and genotype distribution of Giardia duodenalis in rabbits in Shandong Province. Eastern China Biomed Res Int 2020:4714735. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4714735
Liu A et al (2012) Occurrence of bovine giardiasis and endemic genetic characterization of Giardia duodenalis isolates in Heilongjiang Province, in the Northeast of China. Parasitol Res 111(2):655–661. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-012-2883-0
Liu A et al (2014a) Genetic analysis of the gdh and bg genes of animal-derived Giardia duodenalis isolates in Northeastern China and evaluation of zoonotic transmission potential. PLoS ONE 9(4):e95291. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095291
Liu H et al (2014b) Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon, Giardia and Cyclospora in diarrheal outpatients in China. BMC Infect Dis 14:25. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-25
Liu H, Xu N, Yin J, Yuan Z, Shen Y, Cao J (2019) Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of potentially zoonotic Giardia duodenalis in pigs in Shanghai, China. Parasitology 146(9):1199–1205. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182019000349
Ma X, Wang Y, Zhang HJ, Wu HX, Zhao GH (2018) First report of Giardia duodenalis infection in bamboo rats. Parasit Vectors 11(1):520. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-3111-2
Messa A Jr et al (2021) Molecular diversity of Giardia duodenalis in children under 5 years from the Manhica district, Southern Mozambique enrolled in a matched case-control study on the aetiology of diarrhoea. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(1):e0008987. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008987
Minetti C, Lamden K, Durband C, Cheesbrough J, Fox A, Wastling JM (2015) Determination of Giardia duodenalis assemblages and multi-locus genotypes in patients with sporadic giardiasis from England. Parasit Vectors 8:444. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-1059-z
Morch K, Hanevik K (2020) Giardiasis treatment: an update with a focus on refractory disease. Curr Opin Infect Dis 33(5):355–364. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0000000000000668
Morrison HG et al (2007) Genomic minimalism in the early diverging intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia. Science 317(5846):1921–1926. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1143837
Naguib D, El-Gohary AH, Mohamed AA, Roellig DM, Arafat N, Xiao L (2018) Age patterns of Cryptosporidium species and Giardia duodenalis in dairy calves in Egypt. Parasitol Int 67(6):736–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2018.07.012
Ng J, Yang R, Whiffin V, Cox P, Ryan U (2011) Identification of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia genotypes infecting animals in Sydney’s water catchments. Exp Parasitol 128(2):138–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2011.02.013
Nunes BC et al (2018) Genetic diversity of Giardia duodenalis circulating in three Brazilian biomes. Infect Genet Evol 59:107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2018.02.001
Pan W et al (2018) Prevalence and genotypes of Giardia lamblia from stray dogs and cats in Guangdong, China. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 13:30–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2018.03.012
Pantchev N et al (2014) Occurrence and molecular typing of Giardia isolates in pet rabbits, chinchillas, guinea pigs and ferrets collected in Europe during 2006–2012. Vet Rec 175(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.102236
Paz e Silva FM, Lopes RS, Araujo Jr JP (2012) Genetic characterisation of Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle in Brazil. Folia Parasitol (praha) 59(1):15–20
Peng XQ et al (2016) Infection rate of Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in cashmere, dairy and meat goats in China. Infect Genet Evol 41:26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.03.021
Peng JJ et al (2020) Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Tan sheep (Ovis aries) in northwestern China. Parasitol Int 77:102126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2020.102126
Petersen HH et al (2015) Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Danish organic pig farms: seasonal and age-related variation in prevalence, infection intensity and species/genotypes. Vet Parasitol 214(1–2):29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.09.020
Poxleitner MK, Carpenter ML, Mancuso JJ, Wang CJ, Dawson SC, Cande WZ (2008) Evidence for karyogamy and exchange of genetic material in the binucleate intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis. Science 319(5869):1530–1533. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153752
Prystajecky N, et al (2015) Giardia spp. are commonly found in mixed assemblages in surface water, as revealed by molecular and whole-genome characterization. Appl Environ Microbiol 81(14):4827–34. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00524-15
Qi M et al (2015a) Multilocus genotyping of potentially zoonotic Giardia duodenalis in pet chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera) in China. Vet Parasitol 208(3–4):113–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.02.001
Qi M, et al. (2015b) Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in grazing horses from Xinjiang, China. Vet Parasitol 209(3–4):169–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.02.030
Qi M et al (2016) Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in dairy calves in Xinjiang, Northwestern China. Parasit Vectors 9(1):546. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1828-3
Quadros RM, Weiss PH, Marques SM, Miletti LC (2016) Potential cross-contamination of similar Giardia duodenalis assemblage in children and pet dogs in southern Brazil, as determined by PCR-RFLP. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 58:66. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-9946201658066
Ratanapo S et al (2008) Multiple modes of transmission of giardiasis in primary schoolchildren of a rural community, Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78(4):611–615
Reboredo-Fernandez A, Gomez-Couso H, Martinez-Cedeira JA, Caccio SM, Ares-Mazas E (2014) Detection and molecular characterization of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) stranded along the Galician coast (Northwest Spain). Vet Parasitol 202(3–4):132–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.03.018
Reboredo-Fernandez A, Ares-Mazas E, Caccio SM, Gomez-Couso H (2015a) Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in wild birds in Galicia (Northwest Spain). Parasitology 142(7):917–925. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182015000049
Reboredo-Fernandez A, Ares-Mazas E, Martinez-Cedeira JA, Romero-Suances R, Caccio SM, Gomez-Couso H (2015b) Giardia and Cryptosporidium in cetaceans on the European Atlantic coast. Parasitol Res 114(2):693–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-014-4235-8
Robertson LJ, Hermansen L, Gjerde BK, Strand E, Alvsvag JO, Langeland N (2006) Application of genotyping during an extensive outbreak of waterborne giardiasis in Bergen, Norway, during autumn and winter 2004. Appl Environ Microbiol 72(3):2212–2217. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.72.3.2212-2217.2006
Robertson LJ, Forberg T, Hermansen L, Hamnes IS, Gjerde B (2007) Giardia duodenalis cysts isolated from wild moose and reindeer in Norway: genetic characterization by PCR-rflp and sequence analysis at two genes. J Wildl Dis 43(4):576–585. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-43.4.576
Russell S, Power M, Ens E (2020) Cryptosporidium and Giardia in feral water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, Australia. Parasitol Res 119(7):2149–2157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-020-06703-6
Ryan U, Zahedi A (2019) Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective. Adv Parasitol 106:209–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2019.07.002
Ryan U, Hijjawi N, Feng Y, Xiao L (2019) Giardia: an under-reported foodborne parasite. Int J Parasitol 49(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.07.003
Sahraoui L, et al. (2019) Molecular characterization of zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis pathogens in Algerian sheep. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Rep 16:100280.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100280
Sak B et al (2013) Long-term monitoring of microsporidia, Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at different stages of habituation in Dzanga Sangha Protected Areas, Central African Republic. PLoS ONE 8(8):e71840. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071840
Santin M (2020) Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Ruminants. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 36(1):223–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvfa.2019.11.005
Santin M, Cortes Vecino JA, Fayer R (2013) A large scale molecular study of Giardia duodenalis in horses from Colombia. Vet Parasitol 196(1–2):31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.02.006
Schurer JM, Hill JE, Fernando C, Jenkins EJ (2012) Sentinel surveillance for zoonotic parasites in companion animals in indigenous communities of Saskatchewan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87(3):495–498. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0273
Seabolt MH, Konstantinidis KT, Roellig DM (2021) Hidden diversity within common protozoan parasites revealed by a novel genomotyping scheme. Appl Environ Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02275-20
Segui R, et al (2018) Prevalence of intestinal parasites, with emphasis on the molecular epidemiology of Giardia duodenalis and Blastocystis sp., in the Paranagua Bay, Brazil: a community survey. Parasit Vectors 11(1):490 doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-3054-7
Shin JC et al (2015) Molecular detection of Giardia intestinalis from stray dogs in animal shelters of Gyeongsangbuk-do (Province) and Daejeon, Korea. Korean J Parasitol 53(4):477–481. https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2015.53.4.477
Siwila J, Mwape KE (2012) Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in pigs in Lusaka, Zambia. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 79(1):E1–5. https://doi.org/10.4102/ojvr.v79i1.404
Solarczyk P, Majewska AC, Moskwa B, Cabaj W, Dabert M, Nowosad P (2012) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis isolates from red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Poland. Folia Parasitol (praha) 59(3):237–240. https://doi.org/10.14411/fp.2012.032
Solarczyk P et al (2021) Zoonotic Giardia duodenalis sub-assemblage BIV in wild raccoons (Procyon lotor) from Germany and Luxembourg. Zoonoses Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12826
Soliman RH, Fuentes I, Rubio JM (2011) Identification of a novel assemblage B subgenotype and a zoonotic assemblage C in human isolates of Giardia intestinalis in Egypt. Parasitol Int 60(4):507–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2011.09.006
Song Y et al (2018) First report of Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) in China. Parasit Vectors 11(1):204. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2681-3
Souza SL et al (2007) Molecular identification of Giardia duodenalis isolates from humans, dogs, cats and cattle from the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, by sequence analysis of fragments of glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) coding gene. Vet Parasitol 149(3–4):258–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.08.019
Sricharern W, Inpankaew T, Keawmongkol S, Supanam J, Stich RW, Jittapalapong S (2016) Molecular detection and prevalence of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. among long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Thailand. Infect Genet Evol 40:310–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.02.004
Stojecki K, Sroka J, Caccio SM, Cencek T, Dutkiewicz J, Kusyk P (2015) Prevalence and molecular typing of Giardia duodenalis in wildlife from eastern Poland. Folia Parasitol (praha). https://doi.org/10.14411/fp.2015.042
Strkolcova G, Madar M, Hinney B, Goldova M, Mojzisova J, Halanova M (2015) Dog’s genotype of Giardia duodenalis in human: first evidence in Europe. Acta Parasitol 60(4):796–799. https://doi.org/10.1515/ap-2015-0113
Suzuki J, Murata R, Kobayashi S, Sadamasu K, Kai A, Takeuchi T (2011) Risk of human infection with Giardia duodenalis from cats in Japan and genotyping of the isolates to assess the route of infection in cats. Parasitology 138(4):493–500. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182010001459
Tedde T et al (2019) Toxoplasma gondii and Other Zoonotic Protozoans in Mediterranean Mussel ( Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Blue Mussel ( Mytilus edulis): A Food Safety Concern? J Food Prot 82(3):535–542. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-18-157
Teodorovic S, Braverman JM, Elmendorf HG (2007) Unusually low levels of genetic variation among Giardia lamblia isolates. Eukaryot Cell 6(8):1421–1430. https://doi.org/10.1128/EC.00138-07
Thompson RC (2004) The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis. Vet Parasitol 126(1–2):15–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.008
Thompson RC, Meloni BP, Lymbery AJ (1988b) Humans and cats have genetically-identical forms of Giardia: evidence of a zoonotic relationship. Med J Aust 148(4):207–209
Thompson RC, Lymbery AJ, Meloni BP (1988a) Giardiasis a zoonosis in Australia? Parasitol Today 4(7):201; author reply 201. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(88)90088-9
Torrecillas C et al (2021) First Report of Zoonotic Genotype of Giardia duodenalis in Mussels (Mytilus edulis) from Patagonia Argentina. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 21(2):92–97. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2020.2645
Traversa D et al (2012) Giardia duodenalis sub-assemblage of animal and human origin in horses. Infect Genet Evol 12(8):1642–1646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2012.06.014
Tsui CK, et al (2018) Beaver fever: whole-genome characterization of waterborne outbreak and sporadic isolates to study the zoonotic transmission of giardiasis. mSphere. https://doi.org/10.1128/mSphere.00090-18
Utaaker KS, Myhr N, Bajwa RS, Joshi H, Kumar A, Robertson LJ (2017) Goats in the city: prevalence of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in extensively reared goats in northern India. Acta Vet Scand 59(1):86. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-017-0354-4
Vermeulen ET, Ashworth DL, Eldridge MD, Power ML (2015) Investigation into potential transmission sources of Giardia duodenalis in a threatened marsupial (Petrogale penicillata). Infect Genet Evol 33:277–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2015.05.015
Veronesi F et al (2012) Occurrence of Giardia duodenalis infection in chinchillas (Chincilla lanigera) from Italian breeding facilities. Res Vet Sci 93(2):807–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.12.019
Wait LF, Fox S, Peck S, Power ML (2017) Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii). PLoS ONE 12(4):e0174994. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174994
Wang R, et al. (2011) Genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in humans in Henan, China. Exp Parasitol 127(1):42–45.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2010.06.034
Wang H et al (2014) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle in Henan, China. PLoS ONE 9(6):e100453. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100453
Wang H et al (2016a) Prevalence and genotyping of Giardia duodenalis isolated from sheep in Henan Province, central China. Infect Genet Evol 39:330–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2016.02.006
Wang XT et al (2016b) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in dairy and native beef (Qinchuan) calves in Shaanxi province, northwestern China. Parasitol Res 115(3):1355–1361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-4908-6
Wang SS, Yuan YJ, Yin YL, Hu RS, Song JK, Zhao GH (2017a) Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in pigs of Shaanxi Province, northwestern China. Parasit Vectors 10(1):490. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2418-8
Wang X et al (2017b) High genetic diversity of Giardia duodenalis assemblage E in pre-weaned dairy calves in Shanghai, China, revealed by multilocus genotyping. Parasitol Res 116(8):2101–2110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-017-5509-8
Wang R et al (2019) Infection patterns, clinical significance, and genetic characteristics of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle in Jiangsu, China. Parasitol Res 118(10):3053–3060. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-019-06426-3
Wegayehu T et al (2017) Prevalence and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium species and Giardia duodenalis in lambs in Oromia Special Zone, Central Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res 13(1):22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-016-0916-0
Wielinga CM, Thompson RC (2007) Comparative evaluation of Giardia duodenalis sequence data. Parasitology 134(Pt 12):1795–1821. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182007003071
Wielinga C, Thompson RCA, Monis P, Ryan U (2015) Identification of polymorphic genes for use in assemblage B genotyping assays through comparative genomics of multiple assemblage B Giardia duodenalis isolates. Mol Biochem Parasitol 201(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molbiopara.2015.05.002
Woschke A et al (2021) Suitability of current typing procedures to identify epidemiologically linked human Giardia duodenalis isolates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(3):e0009277. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009277
Xiao L, Feng Y (2017) Molecular epidemiologic tools for waterborne pathogens Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis. Food Waterborne Parasitol 8–9:14–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2017.09.002
Yang R, Ying JL, Monis P, Ryan U (2015) Molecular characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in cats (Felis catus) in Western Australia. Exp Parasitol 155:13–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2015.05.001
Ye J, Xiao L, Ma J, Guo M, Liu L, Feng Y (2012) Anthroponotic enteric parasites in monkeys in public park. China Emerg Infect Dis 18(10):1640–1643. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1810.120653
Ye J et al (2014) Occurrence of human-pathogenic Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium genotypes in laboratory macaques in Guangxi. China Parasitol Int 63(1):132–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2013.10.007
Yin YL et al (2018) Prevalence and multi-locus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis from goats in Shaanxi province, northwestern China. Acta Trop 182:202–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.03.013
Yu F et al (2019a) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis isolated from patients in Egypt. Acta Trop 196:66–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.05.012
Yu F et al (2019b) Molecular characterization of three intestinal protozoans in hospitalized children with different disease backgrounds in Zhengzhou, central China. Parasit Vectors 12(1):543. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3800-5
Yu Z, et al (2020) Molecular characterization and zoonotic potential of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium sp. in farmed masked palm civets (Paguma larvata) in southern China. Parasit Vectors 13(1):403. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04274-0
Zahedi A, Field D, Ryan U (2017) Molecular typing of Giardia duodenalis in humans in Queensland - first report of Assemblage E. Parasitology 144(9):1154–1161. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182017000439
Zhang W et al (2012) Genetic characterizations of Giardia duodenalis in sheep and goats in Heilongjiang Province, China and possibility of zoonotic transmission. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6(9):e1826. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001826
Zhang XX et al (2016) Occurrence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia intestinalis assemblage C and D in farmed raccoon dogs, Nyctereutes procyonoides, in China. Parasit Vectors 9:471. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1771-3
Zhang XX et al (2017a) The presence of Giardia intestinalis in donkeys, Equus asinus. China Parasit Vectors 10(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1936-0
Zhang Y et al (2017b) Detection and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in dogs in Sichuan province, China. Parasite 24:31. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2017032
Zhang X, et al. (2018) Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Rabbits in Xinjiang, China. J Eukaryot Microbiol 65(6):854–859. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeu.12629
Zhang Q, Zhang Z, Ai S, Wang X, Zhang R, Duan Z (2019) Cryptosporidium spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Giardia duodenalis from animal sources in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA) in China. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 67:101346.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2019.101346
Zhao GH et al (2015) First report of zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in golden takins (Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi). Infect Genet Evol 34:394–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2015.07.016
Zheng G et al (2014) Genotyping of Giardia duodenalis isolates from dogs in Guangdong, China based on multi-locus sequence. Korean J Parasitol 52(3):299–304. https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2014.52.3.299
Zhong Z et al (2017) Multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in captive non-human primates in Sichuan and Guizhou provinces Southwestern, China. PLoS ONE 12(9):e0184913. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184913
Zhong Z, et al. (2018) Occurrence and genetic characterization of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. from adult goats in Sichuan Province, China. PLoS ONE 13(6):e0199325. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199325
Zou Y et al (2019) Prevalence and genetic characterization of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia duodenalis in Tibetan pigs in Tibet, China. Infect Genet Evol 75:104019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104019
Funding
This work was supported by Guangdong Major Project of Basic and Applied Basic Research (2020B0301030007), the 111 Project (D20008), and Innovation Team Project of Guangdong University (2019KCXTD001).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Guest Editor: Christina Strube
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cai, W., Ryan, U., Xiao, L. et al. Zoonotic giardiasis: an update. Parasitol Res 120, 4199–4218 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-021-07325-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-021-07325-2