Abstract
In December 2019, a series of acute respiratory illnesses were first reported in central China. Investigations have led to the identification of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), subsequently designated as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), as the causative agent of the so-called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Since its emergence, SARS-CoV-2 has spread rapidly across the globe, resulting in the current ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which has claimed the lives of millions of people throughout the world and continues to do so. Beginning with a brief overview of different historical and contemporary theories of infectious diseases, this chapter moves on to review the most recent literature on the origin, structure, pathogenesis, host immune responses, viral evasion of the host immunity, and mutated variants of SARS-CoV-2. In addition, patients’ clinical characteristics and risk factors, clinical trials, preventative measures, and the COVID-19 death toll among different countries are discussed. We also overview the utilization of various technologies in the battle against the pandemic, the impact of the pandemic on clinical research and trials, medical insurance, biomedical waste (BMW) generation and management, and the clinical lessons learned.
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Notes
- 1.
Upon microbe (antigen) entry into the host body, host immune cells are stimulated to produce antibodies (Abs), such as immunoglobulin M and/or G that are specific to the corresponding antigen (Clem, 2011).
- 2.
Detection of antigen-specific Abs in patient serum, using various serological immunoassays (Vainionpää & Leinikki, 2008).
- 3.
Serotherapy is a type of passive immunization against numerous infectious diseases, using purified serum of infected or vaccinated individuals that contain specific Abs against the disease in question (Hifumi et al., 2017).
- 4.
For example, the production of new strains of influenza virus due to genetic drift and the drastic genetic shift are responsible for the seasonal and pandemic influenza, respectively (Casanova & Abel, 2020).
- 5.
Antimicrobial substances can select for and result in the emergence of new strains of microbe that are resistance to antimicrobial agents (Casanova & Abel, 2020).
- 6.
In contrast to monozygotic twins, who are genetically identical, dizygotic twins are genetically distinct in that they only share approximately about half of their genetic material (Burgner et al., 2006).
- 7.
NK cells and CD8+ T cells, components of innate and adaptive immune systems, respectively, each have distinct mechanisms to recognize and kill infected cells (Rosenberg & Huang, 2018).
- 8.
Recombination refers to the transfer genetic materials, as well as harmful traits between same virus, but different strains, which allows for the emergence of a novel virus that the host has never encountered or acquired immunity against have not previously been encountered by the host population (Gibson et al., 2015).
- 9.
United Health Professionals has more than 1500 members, who are professors of medicine, intensive care unit doctors, and infectologists (United Health Professionals, 2021).
- 10.
Transplacental and intrapartum refers to viral transmission across placenta and direct contact of the baby with the genital tract during vaginal delivery, respectively (Konstantinidou et al., 2021).
- 11.
Opsonization is an immunological process that involves the attachment of opsonins, such as preformed Abs, to tag invading pathogens and then allowing them to be destroyed by phagocytes.
- 12.
Opsonization is an immunological process that involves the attachment of opsonins, such as preformed Abs, to tag invading pathogens and then allowing them to be destroyed by phagocytes.
- 13.
The term variant is misleading, as two viral variants may vary by a single mutation or by a large number of mutations (Lauring & Hodcroft, 2021).
- 14.
An antigen ability to elicit a cellular and humoral immune response is termed immunogenicity, whereas the ability to be recognized by antigen-specific antibodies is called antigenicity (Ilinskaya & Dobrovolskaia, 2016).
- 15.
In the substitution mutations, one amino acid (first letter) is replaced at a specific position in the protein sequence (middle number) with another amino acid (second letter). For example, D614G refers to a substitution of aspartic acid (D) to glycine (G) at amino acid position 614 of the spike glycoprotein (Khateeb et al., 2021).
- 16.
The ability of a screening test to accurately detect all individuals who have the disease (true positive) is referred to as its sensitivity (Trevethan, 2017).
- 17.
The ability of a screening test to accurately detect all individuals who do not have the disease (true negative) is referred to as its specificity (Trevethan, 2017).
- 18.
The positive predictive value (PPV) is the probability that those individuals who have tested positive for the disease in the screening test, truly have the disease in question (Trevethan, 2017).
- 19.
The negative predictive value (NPV) is the probability that those individuals who have tested negative for the disease in the screening test, truly do not have the disease in question (Trevethan, 2017).
- 20.
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Hosseini-Nezhad, P., Hosseini-Nezhad, S., Hosseini-Nezhad, A. (2023). Medical Perspective on COVID-19. In: Faghih, N., Forouharfar, A. (eds) Biopolitics and Shock Economy of COVID-19 . Contributions to Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27886-0_2
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