Abstract
Research indicates a strong relationship between student engagement and school climate and this has contributed to making these prominent topics in discussions of school improvement. What often goes unstated, however, is that student engagement is a transactional process, and school climate is an emergent quality. Furthermore, addressing these concerns requires particular attention to how schools deal with barriers to learning and teaching. This chapter starts with a discussion of engagement as a transactional process and the implications with respect to student differences in motivation and ability. We then explore what schools do wrong in addressing these differences and what is involved in creating an engaging and supportive learning climate. We conclude with recommendations for moving forward.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
While student motivation always is a concern of personnel preparation programs, what such programs emphasize often is a narrow focus on using extrinsic motivators. In particular, generations of teachers and student/learning support staff (and parents) have been taught about manipulating and controlling behavior using reinforcers. As a result, control strategies continue to dominate how schools and homes react to engagement problems and misbehavior.
Such strategies can be somewhat effective in the short-run. The price paid, however, is that social control practices often decrease intrinsic motivation for engaging in instruction and generate psychological reactance on the part of students which can lead them to act in undesired ways as they try to restore their feelings of self-determination. Given that such practices can be counterproductive over the long-term, schools and homes are being called upon to move toward more autonomy-supportive approaches to enhance engagement in instruction and reengage disconnected students (Ryan & Deci, 2017).
- 2.
Ultimately, all school interventions to address barriers to learning and teaching are about supporting learning. As defined for policy purposes, learning supports are the resources, strategies, and practices that support physical, social, emotional and intellectual development and well-being to enable all students to have an equal opportunity for success at school. Learning Supports are deployed in classrooms and schoolwide.
- 3.
The multitier student support (MTSS) model as emphasized in ESSA and as widely portrayed in school improvement plans usually is illustrated simply in terms of levels rather than as a set of intervention subsystems. The simplicity of the tiered presentation is appealing, and the framework does help underscore differences in levels of intervention. However, the simple graphic illustration is not a powerful way to depict the continuum, and it is an insufficient framework for organizing student/learning supports. Specific concerns about the MTSS framework are that (1) it mainly stresses levels of intensity, (2) it does not address the problem of systematically connecting interventions that fall into and across each level, and (3) it does not address the need to connect school and community interventions. As a result, most adoptions of MTSS in school improvement plans do little to guide better directions for addressing barriers to learning and teaching (Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports, 2020a, 2020b).
- 4.
Each of the six domains are discussed in detail in Adelman and Taylor (2019) and have been explored in a variety of venues across the country over the last decade (see http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/summit2002/nind7.htm)
- 5.
For examples of policy statements and design and strategic plans, see Sections A and B of our Center’s System Change Toolkit at http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/summit2002/resourceaids.htm
- 6.
See Adelman and Taylor (2018) for a discussion of the operational infrastructure needed for and the problems associated with making sustainable system changes.
References
Adelman, H. S. (1995). Education reform: Broadening the focus. Psychological Science, 6, 61–62.
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (1994). On understanding intervention in psychology and education. Praeger. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/contedu/understandingintervention.pdf
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2005). Classroom climate. In S. W. Lee, P. A. Lowe, & E. Robinson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of school psychology. Sage. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/46classroomclimate.Pdf
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2006). The implementation guide to student learning supports: New directions for addressing barriers to learning. Corwin Press.
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2011). Expanding school improvement policy to better address barriers to learning and integrate public health concerns. Policy Futures in Education, 9, 431–436. https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2011.9.3.431
Adelman, H. S. & Taylor, L. (2017). Addressing barriers to learning: In the classroom and schoolwide. Los Angeles: Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/barriersbook.pdf
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2018). Addressing barriers to learning: In the classroom and schoolwide. Center for MH & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/55w7b8x8
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2019). Improving school improvement. Center for MH & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5288v1c1
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2020a). Embedding mental health as schools change. Center for MH & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/mh20a.pdf
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2020b). Restructuring California schools to address barriers to learning and teaching in the COVID 19 context and beyond. PACE. https://edpolicyinca.org/publications/restructuring-california-schools-address-barriers-learning-and-teaching-covid-19?utm_source=PACE+All&utm_campaign=61b8aabde4-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_11_17_07_36_COPY_05&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_9f1af6b121-61b8aabde4-522725185
American Youth Policy Forum. (2000). High schools of the millenium report. : Author . Retrieved from https://www.aypf.org/resource/high-schools-of-the-millennium-report-of-the-workgroup/
Bandura, A. (1978). The self-system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344–358.
Berkowitz, R., Moore, H., Astor, R. A., & Benbenishty, R. (2017). Research synthesis of the associations between socioeconomic background, inequality, school climate, and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 87, 425–469.
Bodovski, K., Nahum-Shani, I., & Walsh, R. (2013). School climate and students' early mathematics learning: Another search for contextual effects. American Journal of Education, 119, 209–234.
Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., Debnam, K. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2014). Measuring school climate in high schools: A focus on safety, engagement, and the environment. Journal of School Health, 84, 593–604.
Center for Mental Health in Schools (2011). Designing school improvement to enhance classroom climate for all students. Los Angeles: Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/schoolclimate.pdf
Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. (2012). Schools and the challenge of LD and ADHD misdiagnoses. Author. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/ldmisdiagnoses.pdf
Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. (2018). ESSA and addressing barriers to learning and teaching: Is there movement toward transforming student/learning supports? Author. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/2018%20report.pdf
Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. (2019). About promoting social emotional development at school: “Kernels” and natural Opportunities. Author. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/socemotdev.pdf
Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. (2020a). MTSS: It’s just a starting point for transforming student/learning supports. Author. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/MTSSbuild.pdf
Center for MH in Schools & Student/Learning Supports at UCLA. (2020b). Much discussion of MTSS, little discussion of student/learning support staff and developing MTSS into a unified, comprehensive, and equitable system. Author. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/july19init.pdf
Chapman, C., Laird, J., & Kewalramani, A. (2011). Trends in high school dropout and completion rates in the United States: 1972–2008. Population. National Center for Educational Statistics.
Czerkawski, B. C., & Lyman, E. W. (2016). An instructional design framework for fostering student engagement in online learning environments. TechTrends, 60, 532–539 . Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11528-016-0110-z#citeas
Daily, S. M., Mann, M. J., Kristjansson, A. L., Smith, M. L., & Zullig. K. J. (2019). School climate and academic achievement in middle and high school students. Journal of School Health, 89, 173–180 . Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/josh.12726
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71, 1–27. Retrieved from http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/documents/2001_DeciKoestnerRyan.pdf
Eccles, J. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–132.
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109. Retrieved from http://rer.sagepub.com/content/74/1/59.short
Fresson, M., Meulemans, T., Dardenne, B., & Geurten, M. (2019). Overdiagnosis of ADHD in boys: Stereotype impact on neuropsychological assessment. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 8, 231–245. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21622965.2018.1430576
Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2019). Learner engagement in blended learning environments: A conceptual framework. Online Learning, 23, 145–178. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1218398.pdf
Hargreaves, A., & Fink, D. (2000). The three dimesnions of reform. Educational Leadership, 57, 30–34.
Hinshaw, S. P., & Scheffler, R. M. (2014). The ADHD explosion: Myths, medication, money, and today’s push for performance. Oxford University Press.
Hodges, T. (2018). School engagement is more than just talk. Education. Gallop online https://www.gallup.com/education/244022/school-engagement-talk.aspx
Hoover, S., Lever, N., Sachdev, N., Bravo, N., Schlitt, J., Acosta Price, O., Sheriff, L., & Cashman, J. (2019). Advancing comprehensive school mental health: Guidance from the field. National Center for School Mental Health. University of Maryland School of Medicine.www.schoolmentalhealth.org/AdvancingCSMHS.
Hopson, L. M., Schiller, K. S., & Lawson, H. A. (2014). Exploring linkages between school climate, behavioral norms, social supports, and academic success. Social Work Research, 38, 197–209. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/swr/article/38/4/197/1624992
Insel, P. M., & Moos, R. H. (1974). Psychological environments: Expanding the scope of human ecology. American Psychologist, 29, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035994
Jacob, I., Temkin, D., Rodriguez, Y., Okogbue, O., Greenfield, S., & Roemerman, R. (2020). Setting the foundation for safe, supportive, and equitable school climates. Child Trends. https://www.childtrends.org/publications/setting-the-foundation-for-safe-supportive-and-equitable-school-climates
Laratta, R. (2011). Ethical climate and accountability in nonprofit organizations. Public Management Review, 13, 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2010.501620
Lombardi, E., Traficante, D., Bettoni, R., Offredi, I., Giorgetti, M., & Vernice, M. (2019). The impact of school climate on Well-being experience and school engagement: A study with high-school students. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2482. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02482
McEvoy, A., & Welker, R. (2000). Antisocial behavior, academic failure, and school climate: A critical review. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 130–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342660000800301
Moore, K. A. (2014). Making the grade: Assessing the evidence for integrated student supports. Child trends. Retrieved from https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2014-07ISSPaper2.pdf
National League of Cities. (2020). Addressing student reengagement in the time of COVID-19. Author. https://www.nlc.org/article/2020/11/04/addressing-student-reengagement-in-the-time-of-covid-19/
Ontario Human Rights Commission. (n.d.). The opportunity to succeed: Achieving barrier-free education for students with disabilities. Author. http://www3.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/The_opportunity_to_succeed%3A_Achieving_barrier-free_education_for_students_with_disabilities.pdf
Park, T., & Lim, C. (2019). Design principles for improving emotional affordances in an online learning environment. Asia Pacific Educational Review, 20, 53–67. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12564-018-9560-7#Sec14
Reed, A.C. (2019). Why we need personalized professional development in our schools.. Teach Plus. Online at https://medium.com/whats-the-plus/why-we-need-personalized-professional-development-in-our-schools-2322c0178982
Rumberger, R. W., & Rotermun, S. (2012). The relationship between engagement and high school dropout. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 491–513). Springer.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press.
Ryberg, R., Her, S., Temkin, D., Madill, R., Kelley, C., Thompson, J., & Gabriel, A. (2020). Measuring school climate: Validating the education department school climate survey in a sample of urban middle and high school students. AERA Open., 6, 1–2. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2332858420948024
Schifter, C. C. (2016). Personalizing professional development for teachers. In M. Murphy, S. Redding, & J. Twyman (Eds.), Handbook on personalized learning for states, districts, and schools (pp. 221–235). Temple University, Center on Innovations in Learning. http://www.centeril.org/2016Handbook/resources/Schifter_chapter_web.pdf
Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. G., & Macey, W. H. (2013). Organizational climate and culture. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 361–388.
Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & Alter, P. J. (2014). Teacher instruction as a predictor for student engagement and disruptive behaviors. Preventing School Failure, 58, 193–200. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1045988X.2013.787588
Sherblom, S. A., Marshall, J. C., & Sherblom, J. C. (2006). The relationship between school climate and math and reading achievement. Journal of Character Education, 4, 19–31.
Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840
Taylor, L., & Adelman, H. S. (1999). Personalizing classroom instruction to account for motivational and developmental differences. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 15, 255–276. http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/19%20PERSONALIZING%20CLASSROOM%20INSTRUCTION.pdf
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83, 357–385. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0034654313483907
Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). H ow to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms (3rd ed.). ASCD.
Wang, M. T., & Degol, J. L. (2016). School climate: A review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 315–352. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-015-9319-1
Wattam, D. K., Benson, K., & Reyes, K. (2019). K-12 teacher candidates’ understanding of ADHD student protections under section 504. National Social Science Journal, 53, 67–72. https://nssa.us/journals/pdf/NSS_Journal_53_1.pdf#page=67
Zullig, K. J., Koopman, T. M., Patton, J. M., & Ubbes, V. A. (2010). School climate: Historical review, instrument development, and school assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28, 139–152. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734282909344205
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Adelman, H., Taylor, L. (2022). Student Engagement and Learning Climate. In: Reschly, A.L., Christenson, S.L. (eds) Handbook of Research on Student Engagement. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07853-8_26
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07853-8_26
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-07852-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-07853-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)