Abstract
Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that autonomous motivation is a critical condition for optimizing human flourishing. In the school context, autonomy-supportive teaching promotes student learning and well-being. In Asian contexts, however, an indispensable part of classroom instruction seems to relate to control, which is conceptualised as the opposite of autonomy-support. While some researchers interpret Asian teachers’ instructional practices as authoritarian, increasingly more studies have argued that children in collectivist societies indeed benefit from teachers’ ‘control’. Some researchers proclaim that autonomy support is more appropriate in Western contexts while control is more important among Asian teachers. However, other studies claim that the need for autonomy-support is universal. This chapter aims to address this debate by reporting a study of the teaching style of two Hong Kong teachers. The mixed-method study was based on classroom observations and interviews of two teachers regarding their teaching styles, and a survey measured the motivation of 67 junior form students who were taught by the teachers. The coding results of classroom observation indicated that the two teachers have largely embodied autonomy support in their teaching, and that minimal controlling behaviour was found in the teachers. Their classroom practice was dominated by fostering student interest, with relatedness support and promoting mastery learning orientation as the dominant features of the two teacher’s teaching styles respectively. The two teachers’ beliefs and practices showed a strong resemblance to Confucian philosophical ideas, demonstrating the characteristics of being altruistic (jen), self as relational, and self-cultivation. Their students’ motivation was almost equally high in terms of students’ relationships with the teachers, perceived self-efficacy, learning goals, and self-handicapping behaviour (reverse score). The results disagreed with the point of view that Asian teachers are controlling but rather endorses self-otherness as a core cultural norm that makes Asian teachers’ autonomy support and teaching style specific to the Chinese culture. Implications for positive psychology and future research directions are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., Fontaine, J., Haerens, L., Delrue, J., & Reeve, J. (2019). Toward an integrative and fine-grained insight in motivating and demotivating teaching styles: The merits of a circumplex approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(3), 497–521. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000293
An, S., Kulm, G., Wu, Z., Ma, F., & Wang, L. (2006). The impact of cultural differences on middle school mathematics teachers’ beliefs in the U.S. and China. In F. K. S. Leung, K. D. Graf, & F. J. Lopez-Real (Eds.), Mathematics education in different cultural traditions: A comparative study of East Asia and the west. New ICMI study series (Vol. 9, pp. 449–464). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29723-5_27
Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective. Science Education, 84(6), 740–756. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6%3C740::AID-SCE4%3E3.0.CO;2-3
Boddy, C. R. (2016). Sample size for qualitative research. Qualitative Market Research, 19(4), 426–432. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-2016-0053
Bond, M. H. (1992). Beyond the Chinese face—insights from psychology. Oxford University Press.
Bozack, A., Vega, R., McCaslin, M., & Good, T. (2008). Teacher support of student autonomy in comprehensive school reform classrooms. Teachers College Record, 110(11), 2389–2407. http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentId=15280
Canda, E. R. (2013). Filial piety and care for elders: A contested Confucian virtue reexamined. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 22(3–4), 213–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2013.843134
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. SAGE.
Cheng, M. H. M., & Wan, Z. H. (2016). Unpacking the paradox of Chinese science learners: Insights from research into Asian Chinese school students’ attitudes towards learning science, science learning strategies, and scientific epistemological views. Studies in Science Education, 52(1), 29–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2015.1112471
Choi, P. L., & Tang, S. Y. F. (2009). Teacher commitment trends: Cases of Hong Kong teachers from 1997 to 2007. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(5), 767–777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.01.005
Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1984). A developmental theory of motivation in the classroom. Teacher Education Quarterly, 11(4), 64–77. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23474551
Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), The Minnesota symposia on child psychology. Self processes and development (Vol. 23, pp. 43–77). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The” what” and” why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x
Guest, G., Namey, E., & Chen, M. (2020). A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLoS ONE, 15(5), e0232076. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076
Hattie, J. A. C. (2003). Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? Building Teacher Quality: What does the research tell us ACER Research [Conference]. Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved from http://research.acer.edu.au/research_conference_2003/4/
Ho, I. T. F. (2003). Are Chinese teachers authoritarian? In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 99–115). Comparative Education Research Centre.
Houghton, C., Murphy, K., Shaw, D., & Casey, D. (2015). Qualitative case study data analysis: An example from practice. Nurse Researcher, 22(5), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr.22.5.8.e1307
Hue, M. T. (2007). Emergence of Confucianism from teachers’ definitions of guidance and discipline in Hong Kong secondary schools. Research in Education, 78(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.7227/RIE.78.3
Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., & Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean students? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 644–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014241
Jiang, J., Vauras, M., Volet, S., Salo, A. E., & Kajamies, A. (2019). Autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching in the classroom: A video-based case study. Education Sciences, 9(3), 229–247. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030229
King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross-cultural universality and variability through personal investment theory. Educational Psychologist, 49(3), 175–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813
Kwan, K. L. K. (2000). Counseling Chinese peoples: Perspectives of filial piety. Asian Journal of Counseling, 7(1), 23–41.
Lam, B. H. (2015). There is no fear in love—the giving of social support to students enhances teachers’ career development. In R. Osbourne (Ed.), Job satisfaction: Determinants, workplace implications and impacts on psychological well-being (pp. 97–111). Nova Science Publishers.
Lam, B. H. (2019). Social support, well-being, and teacher development. Springer.
Lam, B. H. (2011a). A reflective account of a pre-service teacher’s effort to implement progressive curriculum in field practice. Schools: Studies in Education, 8(1), 22–39.
Lam, B. H. (2011b). The contexts of teaching in the 21st century. In S. N. Phillipson & B. H. Lam (Eds.), Learning and teaching in the Chinese classroom (pp. 1–30). HKU Press.
Lavy, S. (2020). A review of character strengths interventions in twenty-first-century schools: Their importance and how they can be fostered. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 15(2), 573–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9700-6
Leung, F. K. (1995). The mathematics classroom in Beijing, Hong Kong and London. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 29(4), 297–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01273909
Li, C. (2008). Does Confucian ethics integrate care ethics and justice ethics? The case of Mencius. Asian Philosophy, 18(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552360701880545
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.1.71
Llewellyn, J., Hancock, G., Kirst, M., & Roeloffs, K. (1982). A perspective on education in Hong Kong: Report by a visiting panel. Hong Kong Government Printer.
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales (PALS). University of Michigan.
Moustaka, F. C., Vlachopoulos, S. P., Kabitsis, C., & Theodorakis, Y. (2012). Effects of an autonomy-supportive exercise instructing style on exercise motivation, psychological well-being, and exercise attendance in middle-age women. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 9(1), 138–150.
Murphy, D. (1987). Offshore education: A Hong Kong perspective. Australian University Review, 30(2), 43–44.
Ng, R. M. C. (2009). College and character: What did Confucius teach us about the importance of integrating ethics, character, learning, and education? Journal of College and Character, 10(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.2202/1940-1639.1045
Ni, P. (2017). Understanding the analects of Confucius: A new translation of Lunyu with annotations. SUNY Press.
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Park, H., Rehg, M. T., & Lee, D. (2005). The influence of Confucian ethics and collectivism on whistleblowing intentions: A study of South Korean public employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 58(4), 387–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-5366-0
Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research. Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioral Science, 3, 1633–1636. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013192.bsa514
Peters, M. A. (2020). Educational philosophies of self-cultivation: Chinese humanism. Educational Philosophy and Theory. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1811679
Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. Oxford University Press.
Reeve, J. (2009). Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44(3), 159–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903028990
Reeve, J., Bolt, E., & Cai, Y. (1999). Autonomy-supportive teachers: How they teach and motivate students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 537–548. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.537
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004). Enhancing students’ engagement by increasing teachers’ autonomy support. Motivation and Emotion, 28(2), 147–169. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MOEM.0000032312.95499.6f
Reeve, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Assor, A., Ahmad, I., Cheon, S. H., Jang, H., Kaplan, H., Moss, J. D., Olaussen, B. S., & Wang, C. J. (2014). The beliefs that underlie autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching: A multinational investigation. Motivation and Emotion, 38(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9367-0
Reeve J. (2016) Autonomy-supportive teaching: What it is, how to do it. In W. Liu, J. Wang, & R. Ryan (Eds), Building autonomous learners (pp. 129–152). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-630-0_7
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. (1995). Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Blackwell.
Sierens, E., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Dochy, F. (2009). The synergistic relationship of perceived autonomy support and structure in the prediction of self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(1), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709908X304398
Taylor, I. M., & Lonsdale, C. (2010). Cultural differences in the relationships among autonomy support, psychological need satisfaction, subjective vitality, and effort in British and Chinese physical education. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(5), 655–673. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.5.655
Tsai, D. F. C. (2001). How should doctors approach patients? A Confucian reflection on personhood. Journal of Medical Ethics, 27(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.27.1.44
Tseng, V. (2004). Family interdependence and academic adjustment in college: Youth from immigrant and US-born families. Child Development, 75(3), 966–983. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00717.x
Tu, W.-M. (1999). Self-cultivation as education embodying humanity. The Proceedings of the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy., 3, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.5840/wcp201999349
Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1
Wang, F. (2004). Confucian thinking in traditional moral education: Key ideas and fundamental features. Journal of Moral Education, 33(4), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724042000327984
Wang, J. C. K., Ng, B. L. L., Liu, W. C., & Ryan, R. M. (2016). Can being autonomy-supportive in teaching improve students’ self-regulation and performance? In W. Liu, J. Wang, & R. Ryan (Eds.), Building autonomous learners (pp. 227–243). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-630-0_12
Wong, D. B. (2015). Early Confucian philosophy and the development of compassion. Dao, 14, 157–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-015-9438-x
Woods, P. R., & Lamond, D. A. (2011). What would Confucius do?—Confucian ethics and self-regulation in management. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(4), 669–683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0838-5
Yeung, S. Y. S. (2009). Is student-centered pedagogy impossible in Hong Kong? The case of inquiry in classrooms. Asia Pacific Education Review, 10(3), 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-009-9028-x
Zhu, L. (2016). A comparative look at Chinese and American stereotypes. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 42(1).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lam, B.h. (2023). Providing Autonomy Support in an Asian Context: A Tale of Two Teachers. In: King, R.B., Caleon, I.S., Bernardo, A.B.I. (eds) Positive Psychology and Positive Education in Asia. Positive Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5571-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5571-8_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-99-5570-1
Online ISBN: 978-981-99-5571-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)