Outdoor Education

Abstract

Environmental Education (EE) promotes the complex interrelationships between human culture and ecosystems. Due to the political nature of environmental decision-making, the field of Environmental Education faces many disputes. For example: What is the correct definition and purpose of environmental education? Should the curriculum include environmental values and ethics, as well as ecological and economic concepts and skills? What is the role of student environmental action in correcting environmental problems? What is the appropriate role for teachers in developing curricula on environmental education? At what age students should understand environmental issues? What types of Environmental Education should urban, suburban, and rural youth receive? What technology can be used to slow ecological damage? Among these problems, Outdoor Education and Environmental Education also face the problems mentioned above. Due to the political factors of human environmental decision-making, Outdoor Education and Environmental Education have been in an undefined state. Educators continually devise better ways to expand the definition of outdoor education to improve the philosophy and practical work of outdoor education. Outdoor education includes earth education, bio-regional education, expedition learning and expansion training, ecological education, natural awareness, natural experience, local-based teaching and education, and the use of environmental materials as learning to integrate the local environment.

Process is important for learning. Courses taught as lecture courses tend to induce passivity. Indoor classes create the illusion that learning only occurs inside four walls isolated from what students call without apparent irony the "real world."

David W. Orr, What is Education for? 1991:52.

1 Connotation of Outdoor Education

Outdoor education is the organized effort of learning or studying biotic and abiotic aspects of the environment in an outdoor setting that is free of anthropogenic impacts (Fang et al. 2017). For example, how far from a city does a person need to travel to view the stars where there is no light pollution to observe the fauna in their native habitat or the stars? Outdoor education is often referred to as outdoor learning, outdoor schools, forest schools, and wilderness education and these are examples of experiential learning. They combine elements of adventure, environmental, and expedition, and wilderness-based experiences that can sometimes include residential tourist programs. Teachers guide learners to participate in various activities such as hiking, mountain/rock climbing, canoeing, rope lessons, and group games.

1.1 History of Outdoor Education

The philosophy of outdoor education has a long history. Such activities have been documented since the seventeenth century and it could reasonably be presumed that the indigenous people of the world that have oral histories and cultures that are thousands of years old are evidence of the efficacy of outdoor education (Gilbertson et al. 2022). From a much more recent and western point of view, the Czech Theologian and educator Johann Comenius (1592–1670) declared in Didactica Magna (The Great Didactic) that “All people should be allowed to fully learn everything in the world.” He proposed that the rule of learning is to study and observe before language intervention and to connect the curriculum with life (Keatinge 2018). Therefore, he was considered the father of modern education at that time (Dent 2021).

In the United States in the late nineteenth century, educators realized that getting students out of the classroom could improve educational skills, attitudes, and values (Wattchow 2006; Öhman and Sandell 2016). These goals were incorporated into the progressive education movement, which was introduced to American schools in the first half of the twentieth century (Dewey 1916/1997, 1938/1997).

In the early twentieth century, the “camping movement” gained traction with American scholars that were focused on the study of nature (Gagen 2004; Cupers 2008). The purpose of camping was to expand the emotional connection between the students and nature as experience the processes of getting food, shelter, entertainment, spiritual inspiration, and other outdoor recreation activities (Nadel and Scher 2019). This may be partly true. Camping was an inexpensive family activity since people didn’t have a lot of money. In Mainland China, the Scout of the Republic of China was founded in 1912 and Boy Scouts of America in 1910. The outdoor training allowed young boys to experience outdoor camping and survival skills.

In the 1940s, the term “outdoor education” appeared, hoping to describe the teaching process of natural experiences through direct experience and to meet the learning goals of students in various disciplines.

In the USA outdoor education promoting contact and experience with nature became prominent in the 1940s. The W. K. Kellogg Foundation created community school camps to grow this type of learning experience. As progressivism began to fade from public schools in the late 1950s, outdoor education became more important (Knapp 1994). Outdoor educators saw the value of immersive teaching (Dillon et al. 2016), so they started programs outside of the traditional inside classroom (Miles 1987; Freeman and Seaman 2020). The outdoor education program builds on community and cultural values, without raises expectations and standards (Bowdridge and Blenkinsop 2011), strengthens connections between students, and develops positive associations around school activities and the outdoors. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey wilderness-based experiences in which students participate in outdoor activities. Using the outdoor environment, students can have learning experiences that are far different from that experienced inside a building. These natural connections have also offset the negative effects of urbanization (Pigram 1993; Kellert 2012). The learning process of activities, therefore, associated with camping is closely linked to community activities, and more emphasis is placed on practical knowledge, see Figs. 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5.

Fig. 8.1

Southern Illinois University Campus Aerial View (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.2

“Welcome” greeting at SIUC (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.3

Signboard of the Environmental Center, Touch of Nature (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.4

Camping ground (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.5

Water activity (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

In 1965, the U. S. government promoted the Elementary and Secondary Education Act through additional support from nationally protected areas, education departments, private education institutions, professional teacher organizations, and other non-governmental organizations (McGuinn and Hess 2005;Gamson et al. 2015; Casalaspi 2017).

Since outdoor activities are often incorporated into professional curricula, outdoor education has influenced education reforms in the early 2000s (e.g., Mikaels et al. 2016). Currently, courses continued to be developed to improve learners’ social development and leisure skills on student recruitment, retention, and satisfaction in the curriculum (Andre et al. 2017). Supported by learning environments with vision-based augmented reality (AR) to support studies, many professional societies and universities have developed AR to support outdoor learning in undergraduate ecology and environmental science courses to create virtual objects for advanced studies (Chen et al. 2013; Kamarainen et al. 2018).

Until now, outdoor education programs are still considered important at the university, post-graduate, and professional levels. For example, the Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS) has an outdoor education program that it holds during SWS National, International, and Chapter meetings annually (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7). In fact, field work and the work that we often perform in the field are extensions of outdoor education programs because more senior/experienced people are passing their collective knowledge to another generation of learners from kindergarten to twelfth grade (K to 12) (Figs. 8.8, 8.9, 8.10, 8.11, 8.12 and 8.13).

Fig. 8.6

Exploring environments in SWS field trips (right) and side events (left) (Photo by Cheng-Hsiang Liu)

Fig. 8.7

Wei-Ta Fang (left) and Ben A. LePage (right) at the joint INTECOL and SWS Annual Meeting in Florida, USA during 2012 (Photo by Cheng-Hsiang Liu)

Fig. 8.8

Outdoor education program that it holds during lakeshore activities (Lake Oeschinen with its turquoise water in Bern, Switzerland, 2009) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.9

Senior/experienced people are passing their collective knowledge to another generation of learner for kindergarten kids (Aberdeen Country Park Nature Trail, Hong Kong, 2019) (Photo by Denis Woo)

Fig. 8.10

Assembly Photos; a (top) and b (bottom) presented the situations how experienced people are passing knowledge to learners in primary schools‘ outdoor education (Fulong, New Taipei City, 2022) (Photos by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.11

Assembly Photos. Outdoor Photos related to wetland activities (Pinglin, New Taipei City, Taiwan, 2010) (Photos by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.12

Rafting on the Upper Colorado River, Colorado, USA (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.13

Biking in Bern, Switzerland (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

1.2 Site Planning for Outdoor Education

1.2.1 Outdoor Education Bases

An outdoor area that provides teachers and learners with the tools that will allow the learning goals and objectives to be met. The characteristics include the following factors that are summarized below:

• (1) Ecological Attributes:

  • Natural Geographical Environment: The local landscape features such as abiotic factors, landscape, topography, soil, natural hydrology (wetlands, streams, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, seashores, marine areas) and other landscape structural factors.

  • Man-made Structural Environment: An environment that is artificially constructed, formed, and managed, such as buildings, agricultural land, paddy fields, dry land, artificial wetlands, etc.

  • Plant Community: A plant community that is naturally or artificially planted, regenerated or conserved.

  • Animal Group: It belongs to the animal group that exists naturally or revived (Figs. 8.14, 8.15 and 8.16).

    Fig. 8.14

    

    Bird sanctuary (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

    Fig. 8.15

    

    Elephant rehabilitation center (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

    Fig. 8.16

    

    Endangered animal rehabilitation center (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

  • Smell: The floral fragrance of flowering plants and smells we associate with certain ecosystems (e.g., swamps) (Figs.8.17, 8.18 and 8.19).

    Fig. 8.17

    

    Floral fragrance of flowers, Rafflesia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

    Fig. 8.18

    

    Rare flora (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

    Fig. 8.19

    

    Smell from wetlands (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

  • Audio: The sounds of nature (Fig. 8.20).

    Fig. 8.20

    

    The sound of Taiwan Blue Magpie (Urocissa caerulea) is described as a high-pitched cackling chatter, kyak-kyak-kyak-kyak (Photo by Max Horng)

The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the largest population that it can sustain indefinitely with the available resources. It can depend on many abiotic and biotic factors and this needs to be considered when planning outdoor activities. Too many people can simply overwhelm the ability of an ecosystem to absorb the impacts, or our presence could change faunal behaviors.

• (2) Management Attributes:

  • Land and Legal rights: Can the people legally be present on the property and what can or cannot do?

  • Education Supervision and Assessment: frequency of use of outdoor education bases, fire safety, facility safety, on-site supervision and enforcement by government personnel, Environmental education for local volunteers, facility maintenance, and warranty period.

1.2.2 Outdoor Education Routes

The outdoor education route has the characteristics of ecological, social, and management attributes. Outdoor education routes and outdoor education designated bases are different. Outdoor education routes have the characteristics of transportation and commuting. They are the air transportation (airspace), waterway (water area), and land transportation (highway) that tourists travel to their destinations and return home (railway, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) routes, rural roads, lanes, trails, trails). This route is the sum of travelers’ journeys from home to their destinations, including rides, short stays, views, and the geographical distance traveled.

Outdoor education however, is complicated and important because it isn’t one size fits all. Sometimes data collection is the purpose and other times, just a relaxing walk through the forest is the goal. For example, outdoor education for middle school students, a flower is just a flower. It can be pretty and might have a pleasant smell. For a college student, a flower is the plants with reproductive units and fits with the environment (wind or insect pollinated). The anatomy and morphology of the flower provides important data on the evolutionary history of the plant. These concepts sometimes may be too difficult for a child to understand or figure out on their own, but the concepts can be introduced in a manner that they can understand. It is important to point out that field trips often have a substantial travel element because not all of the biotic and abiotic characteristics of an ecosystem or community can be seen at one location.

1.3 The Content of Outdoor Learning

Outdoor education is learning outside of the classroom (Figs. 8.21, 8.22, 8.23 and 8.24).

Fig. 8.21

Bird watching (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.22

Discussion about wildlife at site (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.23

Investigating crawling animals (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.24

A collared scops owl (Otus lettia) from south Asia (Photo by Max Horng)

Learning results depend on many variables, therefore, humans may or may be not learn 20% of their knowledge by listening, 20% from reading, and 60% from personal experience. Since we really don’t remember what we hear or see as much in school contents unless we do hands working on it, therefore, we try to transmit all knowledge to ensure its integrity without skeptical about the information that we receive. Only rare few of people have the learning capability to remember what they glance or hear. Developed in 1946 by Edgar Dale in his Cone of Experience, he provided an intuitive model of the concreteness of various audio-visual media. Dale, however, included no numbers or percentages in his model (Dale 1969, p 107; Masters 2013; 2020).

We tried to investigate the evidence, and evaluate the research regarding to all functions from outdoor education. Most of the Environmental Education takes place outdoors and in the US nature research, conservation education, and school camping were the beginning of environmental education. The techniques used in the study of the environment are combined with academic methods with outdoor exploration (Roth 1978). The learning content is recommended to students to have these criteria or action strategies, such as building on cognition, emotion, psychological satisfaction, and pleasure experiences to organize multifunctional value of education, recreation, training, sports, healing, leisure, and tourism (Fig. 8.25).

Fig. 8.25

The learning content criteria (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

2 Motivation for Outdoor Education

In recent years, society has become more urban, resulting in social trends such as declining birthrates, more urbanization, and digitalization (Egidi et al. 2021). Therefore, the process of standardizing the indoor curriculum in school-age education has begun to cause problems such as poor learning motivation, which is a symptom of Nature-Deficit Disorder (Louv 2005).

If education is a way to build student expectations for activities, then it can and should improve student motivation for learning. Outdoor education can be said to induce students’ learning motivation and enthusiasm, create a more relaxed learning environment, and help students to learn at their own speed and terms, which is believed to be more effective (Gilbertson et al. 2022). Outdoor education is remarkable and a highly effective place for learning. The MOE (Taiwan) managed the 2018 National Outdoor Education Expo to show, and promotion the outdoor education results and they declared that outdoor education can inspire learning and motivation, develop children’s curiosity, exploration abilities, and improve learning efficiency. The MOE’s outdoor education policy promises “learning out of the classroom and letting children’s dreams take off” (National Academy for Education Research 2016). Therefore, the learning environment does not need to be limited to the classroom and should include offsite facilities such as national parks, nature education centers, historical sites, and museums to inspire students’ learning motivation and improve learning efficiency. Outdoor education provides students with the opportunity to experience and learn about nature while improving their view on the functional values provided by the environment and to build appropriate outdoor learning knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motivations that further support environmental stewardship and sustainability. The following examples of outdoor education highlight the motivation for learning.

2.1 Hometown Learning

Outdoor education is compatible with local education if the outdoor education concepts and guidelines can be integrated with specific learning goals and concepts. This allows students to directly experience nature and the concepts being presented in a natural setting that can be complex or as simple as one’s own backyard. Materials or concepts learned outside of the classroom have higher retention rates among students and in many cases may generate a new set of probing questions (Brown 1998; Bell and Chang 2017). Therefore, outdoor teaching can facilitate learning about environmental awareness, while stimulating their curiosity, emotions, and consciousness.

2.2 Research

Students working in an outdoor environment may choose topics or become interested in elements of the environment that they are concerned about, collect the data needed to support/refute their hypotheses, investigate the cause of the problem, and start thinking, planning, designing, interviewing, and conducting research sampling in the field (Figs. 8.26, 8.27, 8.28, 8.29 and 8.30).

Fig. 8.26

Charcoal from mangrove trees (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.27

Interviewing the owner (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.28

Talk and discussion to audience (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.29

The study in the natural sciences and social sciences are the most interesting for diverse cultures, such as tea plantation, cooking, and culture studies experienced by Marinus Otte (second from the left), the Editor-in-Chief, the journal of Wetlands (SCI journal, Springer’s publication), and Velsen Otte (left) at Pinglin Township, New Taipei City, Taiwan (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.30

Assembly photos; Try hard in thinking, planning, designing, interviewing, and conducting research sampling in the fields (Photos by Wei-Ta Fang)

Personal experience makes a difference, and our experience is that it’s easier to arouse interest in learning. By working in the field (outside of the classroom) students can experience working and learning in outdoor atmosphere and develop experience in outdoor research activities. Returning to the classroom then allows a time to reflect, discuss, and explore new problems.

2.3 Experience Learning

Experience is a motivation of human curiosity and children are generally naturally curios and like to experience the world around them as they grow and develop intellectually. Our perception of nature is based on our knowledge and other aspects such as language are built around what we know to be reality at that time. As such, the world or nature is obscured by abstract concepts and if we want to understand nature, it’s important to experience the world around us with the fewest anthropogenic factors that would influence such experiences. The most effective way to learn is through participation in outdoor activities, so we should create opportunities for people, especially children to participate in outdoor learning. It’s only been in the past hundreds of years that have humans entered classrooms for pen and paper studies.

2.4 Emotional Learning

Social emotional learning is an element associated with learning, especially when outdoor activities are included as part of the experience. Frey et al. (2019: 8) consider it to be a form of empowerment. This is a way to interact with others when dealing with physical, social, and emotional issues. Social emotional learning helps cultivate learner identities and confidence in their ability to learn, overcome challenges, and to affect the world around them.

Human emotion can strongly influence learning (Fig. 8.31). This type of social-emotion learning system is based on the “reward-discipline system (tiger mother system, Chua 2011), and uses dopamine, a powerful neurotransmitter to receive rewards evoking increased free-choice actions (left side). The brain responds to the dopamine-producing neurons that could promoting learner performance, such as: (1) assisting learners to identify, describe, and regulate emotional responses; (2) promoting cognitive control skills important for environmental decision-making and problem-solving; (3) developing learner social skills, including teamwork, and sharing, and the ability to build and repair relationships; and (4) letting learners become informed and involved citizens.

Fig. 8.31

A loop model showing learner emotions (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Covey (2020) believed that “climbing the peak” is: Listening to the most profound voice of life and be willing to walk this voice. Among outdoor activities, participating in unknown adventure activities is one of the most common emotional challenges in physical education and teamwork in outdoor education. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey wilderness-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges and outdoor activities such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses and group games. It doesn’t matter if these activities are formal, add-on, or random accidental adventures. After thoughts are endless learning situations and challenges.

Following the completion of an outdoor activity, people often reflect on the activity and develop a sense of satisfaction that forms a calming or healing effect (Schoel et al. 1988). Outdoor activities can be a wonderful way for children and adults to understand and manage their emotions through adventure therapy. Adventurous education, through teamwork can assist in creating and achieving positive activity goals. Based on each other’s feelings in the wilderness, students can express sympathy for others through pain and bitterness and select and maintain a positive and mutually beneficial relationship, thus avoiding making a negative responsibility determination operation.

3 Barriers to Outdoor Education

Outdoor education can provide advantages, but the implementation of outdoor education has obstacles such as the lack of teaching resources, resistance to reform, and the rigidity of administrative systems that all contribute to the reluctance of principals and teachers to lead students to implement outdoor adventure education and experiential education activities. In addition, because of the perceived danger of outdoor education, parents today, prefer to keep students at home under their supervision rather than going outside of the home to a classroom or outside experiencing nature.

3.1 Barriers to School Education

3.1.1 Lack of Teaching Resources

Teachers consider chalk and blackboard (whiteboard pen and whiteboard) learning in the classroom to be the most effective delivery of environmental information for learning. While related, but not always the case, the teachers could have little understanding of the materials that need to be taught or they simply are not good teachers. In addition, limited resources may impact outside activities. There is also the legal risk that a school does not want to carry, so it’s easier and possesses less risk to the school to keep the students in a room.

3.1.2 Inertia to Resist Reform During Covid-19 Pandemic

Outdoor education requires considerable external support such as tour buses, funding, or salaries/stipends. Teachers usually have on-line teaching experience because of the problem of taking classes in the classroom during Covid-19 pandemic. Therefore, outdoor and environmental education the pandemic has been particularly difficult, with lockdowns meaning that programs have had to be cancelled, and in many places these lockdowns continue from 2020s (Quay et al. 2020). Although they intentionally take students outdoors to “fly the air,” they have no way to carry out education outdoors during Covid-19.

3.1.3 The Rigidity of the Administrative System

Outdoor education involves student’s safety and insurance issues; in addition, there are also problems with the school’s budget for transportation matters, and parents’concerns about student safety. School principals have raised questions about whether teachers can safely lead a group of students on a trip, which is their biggest concern. Therefore, under the mentality that one thing is not as good as one thing, all the students in the school should be on a campus with “iron gates and walls which is the principal’s “policy to protect the safety of students.”

3.2 Barriers to Family Education

3.2.1 Psychological Obstacles

COVID-19 appears to have had a major impact on physical activity behaviors globally. Staying at home (lockdown) is being recommended to manage the spread of the virus at the expense of outdoor physical activities (Hammami et al. 2022). If young parents are not letting their children outside because there are dangerous situations out in the world, then the parents themselves really don’t understand nature or they believe education on environmental matters is the school’s responsibility.

However, the three authors of this book were born between the 1950s and 1960s and were expected (or had the freedom) to play outside, unsupervised, and often until it got too dark or dinner was on the table. We imagine that if we were to follow took this approach today, we’d likely be arrested for child neglect or endangerment. Clearly our social values on this aspect have changed substantially in less than 100 years.

Due to the influence of declining birth rates (McDonald 2006), parents take great care of their children, and because of risk aversion they are reluctant to allow their children to engage in outdoor diverse activities (Nichols 2000; Harper 2017). This sense of parental/societal worry affects children’s opportunities to participate in many outdoor activities. According to a survey of 5,500 people in the USA, 40% of Americans considered outdoor space to be unsafe when they were 30 years old. This is an obstacle, especially for Americans and the people from other countries to go outdoors. Americans love to participate in outdoor activities are facing these types of psychological barriers and people in other countries are even more afraid of being outdoors (NatureofAmericans.org).

3.2.2 Physical Obstacles

Most humans now live in cities and many schools are far from green areas. Because the fields and bases of outdoor education are far from the city, they are located in remote areas and form obstacles to transportation. In particular, some students with a physical disability can’t participate in outdoor activities in these places because of personal factors without accessibility facilities. However, some children also in cities have never seen or interacted with nature (Louv 2005).

3.2.3 Economic Obstacles

At present, the cost to implement outdoor education programs is becoming increasingly more expensive and can no longer be included as a teaching tool/medium. Administrative, transportation, insurance, and other fees present substantial barriers to include outdoor education in the program (Hanna 1992). In some cases the parents are expected to support these activities (Aarts et al. 2010; Cook 2021). This is especially prevalent in urban communities, which contributes to the environmental justice (EJ) issues these communities face (Fisher et al. 2006; Garzón et al. 2013). However, because some governments encourage outdoor learning, there may be subsidies that can help offset some of the costs. Moreover, local industry can step up and take some of the fiscal responsibilities for low-income communities. The economic status of a community shouldn’t determine or dictate whether it’s children and residents are provided a good environmental education and opportunities to make a difference. When the government and community care about the environmental literacy of the next generation of students, outdoor learning is a more effective method of teaching/learning compared to the classroom. Economic obstacles often contribute to the parents’ low willingness to pay and even fail to meet the educational needs of individual students studying in the overall environment and future physical and mental development (Jensen 2009).

4 Outdoor Education Field

The outdoor environment is rich and diverse in ecosystems and habitats that provides ample opportunities for education that a person can experience. More and more teachers and children like to engage in natural ecological leisure tourism, mainly to get close to the beautiful natural scenery and rich wildlife environment as these locations provide visitors with a natural environment (Sobel 2008). The goal of outdoor education is to show teachers and students the importance of the environment by experiencing the environment so that they are able to develop an understanding and appreciation of the environment. Some habitats may be biologically and/or physically unique (i.e., one of a kind) and provide an opportunity for educators to capitalize using these environments as an excuse to teach environmental awareness, environmental responsibility, and the economic benefits of giving back by supporting the local community. The following categories are important for implementing outdoor education programs.

4.1 Field-Dependent Development

Understanding the physical location of the site in the regional geographic setting helps contribute an ecosystem or habitat to a sense of place in the regional environmental mosaic. Sense of place is a cornerstone of environmental education and helps maintains the significance and value of ecosystems for individuals (Fig. 8.32). Field selection for outdoor education is based on the following theories (Morgan 2010; Marvin et al. 2002).

Fig. 8.32

Field-dependent development theory (Revised and modified after Morgan 2010; Marvin et al. 2002) (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

4.1.1 Exploration-Assertion Motivation System

The exploration-assertion motivation system is an act of adventure and amusement that occurs during the growth of adolescents because of their curiosity and longing for a place that is special to them. In the process of exploration, there is the arousal or awakening of one’s self. The development of an adolescents’ natural experience is divided into stages of dependence, enlightenment, exploration, and autonomy.

4.1.2 Attachment-Affiliation Motivation System

The attachment-affiliation motivation system is the psychological tendency of adolescents to attach themselves to specific characters in their sense of security for self-growth. For example, frustration in the environment requires a mother’s or a caregiver’s psychological comfort (Ainsworth et al. 1978). This kind of comfort can provide a sense of connection and calm one’s mood (Marvin et al. 2002). When young people grow up, they also develop the phenomenon of local dependence on other people.

4.2 Development of Field Selection

The public and private sectors should provide low-cost or free educational facilities for promoting outdoor education.

4.2.1 Administrative Management System

Depending on the country, outdoor education fields are classified according to their administrative system, such as national parks, national scenic areas, county and city scenic areas, forest recreation areas, beaches, historical and cultural sites (Figs. 8.33, 8.34, 8.35 and 8.36).

Fig. 8.33

Waikiki Hula-Hula Beach Hawaii, USA (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.34

Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, USA (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.35

Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona, USA (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.36

Beaches or seaside sightseeing and recreation areas are attracted tourists to come in rocky beaches (Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark, Sharp Island, Sai Kung, Hong Kong, 2020) (Photo by Dennis Woo)

• (1) National recreation areas, including national parks, natural parks, or national forests;

• (2) Regional recreation areas;

• (3) General scenic areas;

• (4) Forest recreation areas, nature centers, or forest parks; and

• (5) Beaches, fishing grounds, snorkeling areas, or seaside sightseeing and recreation areas.

4.2.2 Nature Protection and Scientific Research Areas

The nature protection and scientific research areas are designated as protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and possibly geological/geomorphological features. These areas are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values, such as for the studies of scientific research (Figs. 8.37, 8.38, 8.39 and 8.40).

Fig. 8.37

San Diego Wild Animal Park, California (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.38

Saguaro Nature Park, Arizona (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.39

Mount Rushmore Protection Park (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.40

The nature protection areas are designated as protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and possibly geological/geomorphological features from anthropogenic influences (Hong Kong UNESCO Global Geopark, High Island Reservoir, Sai Kung, Hong Kong, 2018) (Photo by Dennis Woo)

4.2.3 Historical Relics and Historic Sites

The historic relics or historic sites are official locations where pieces of political, military, cultural, or social history have been preserved due to their value of heritage (Figs. 8.41, 8.42, 8.43 and 8.44).

Fig. 8.41

Atomic Bomb Historical Site, Shibaata, Japan (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.42

Vietnam War Memorial Monument, Washington DC, USA (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.43

Nakajo Temple, Niigata, Japan (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.44

The historical Mongol buildings of Greater Mongolia are known through Chinese chronicles. After the rise of the Mongols in the thirteenth century, the buildings are now decorated using the styles from central and eastern Inner Mongolia, China (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

4.2.4 Industrial Tourism Area

An Industrial Tourism Area is an area mainly for industrial production activities and supplemented by tourism and recreation education such as farms, ranches, orchards, tea gardens, horticultural areas, and urban parks (Figs. 8.45, 8.46, 8.47 and 8.48).

Fig. 8.45

Boh Tea Plantation, Malaysia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.46

Orchid Garden Danga Bay, Malaysia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.47

Toowoomba Cattle Farm, Brisbane, Australia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.48

Millennium Park is featuring as a variety of public art in her outdoor space, Chicago, USA (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

5 The Implementation Content of Outdoor Education

The criteria provided in the Tbilisi Declaration (1977), suggested that environmental educators should review the main environmental issues that are occurring at local, national, regional, and international levels so that the people understand the state of the environment in the world. In addition, Environmental Educators should use various learning environments and teaching methods, emphasizing practical activities and personal experience. Therefore, outdoor education should emphasize the implementation goals and methods.

5.1 Goals of Outdoor Education

The goals of learning in an outdoor setting should be focused on using science at the early grade levels. This helps develop personal and social skills, develop a deeper relationship with nature (Fig. 8.49), and understand how nature progresses from one state to another through a process called succession, and the ability to solve problems.

Fig. 8.49

Ourdoor activities develop personal and social skills and develop a deeper relationship with nature (Dan-hai New Town, New Taipei City, Taiwan, 2022) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

5.2 Implementation Methods of Outdoor Education

We do the best that we can and strive to understand the data. It’s not only important to understand the background knowledge of outdoor teaching styles/strategies, but the needs of the learners and ecology are crucial.

5.2.1 “Flow Learning”

Cornell wrote Sharing Nature: Nature Awareness Activities for All Ages and actively promotes outdoor learning (Cornell 2015, 1979). His program for outdoor teaching activities is called Flow Learning and is divided into four stages:

• (1) Stage One: Awakening enthusiasm;

• (2) Stage Two: Focus Attention (Fig. 8.50);

  Fig. 8.50

  

  The stage two of flow learning should be learnt to “Focus Attention” (Self-photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

• (3) Stage Three: Offer Direct Experience; and

• (4) Stage Four: Sharing Inspiration.

A detailed description of environmental cognition, creates a relaxed and pleasant explanatory atmosphere (Kulas 2019), allowing learners to focus and gain a deep understanding of outdoor classrooms (Asmara et al. 2016). In addition, learners are encouraged to observe and discover problems carefully to gain knowledge of the issue (Weinstein and Mayer 1983). When a learner conducts an experiment, they can sense (see, hear, smell, feel) the environmental characteristics and learn about the environment in a way that cannot be achieved through a book. Further discussion is a way of sharing the information or interpretation, which could increase a learners’ willingness to participate in the learning process.

5.2.2 Eight-Direction Learning

The 8-direction is a method expands on Cornell’s (1979, 2015) outdoor teaching approach for outdoor learning activities. Eight-Direction Learning is detailed as the process, such as: pre-planning preparation, the stage of inspiring, cheering, focusing, introspection, collection, reflection, integration, celebration, etc. This outdoor activity curriculum was created to support the academic and emotional needs through outdoor activities. Teachers, therefore, lead learners into the field for social and emotional learning, improving cognitive function while learners have been led to improve their emotional regulation in a wild (Young et al. 2010: 211).

• (1) Inspiration and Excitement: When explaining the outdoor environment, the teacher is like an actor presenting the information to their audience. Therefore, teachers need to live in the moment (Fig. 8.51).

  Fig. 8.51

  

  Teachers need to use physical movements (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

• (2) Orientation and Motivation: The learner is full of fear for an unfamiliar base. At this moment, the learner’s mood is in the learning motivation situation of “exploration proposition”; but the board game, earth game, or freshman training in outdoor activities taught by teachers It is a directional game that strengthens the motivation of human “attachment and connection” learning.

• (3) Focus: It is important for students to understand the environment and our relationship with the elements of the environment. In many cases, this information can be dry and boring, so the teachers need to have a sense of humor and incorporate these skills when teaching.

• (4) Relaxation and Internalization: Let the learners embrace nature and make good use of the learner’s sensory perception abilities and curiosity (Fig. 8.52).

  Fig. 8.52

  

  Reflection and relaxation–learners embrace nature (Photo by Max Horng)

• (5) Celebration and Harvest: This stage allows learners to discover the wonders of nature themselves, make and record observations and collect data.

• (6) Debriefing: Provide opportunities for the students to discuss as a group what they learned or experienced. Teachers should be involved in this process to understand what was learned and what goals and objectives of the activity were missed.

• (7) Distillation and Integration: After filtering the data the teacher uses a concise conclusion method to reinforce what was learned.

• (8) Imagination: Let students celebrate in a relaxed setting. Outdoor activities are an education of love and the most welcoming experience. In a relaxed situation, we strengthen the educational relationship of “attachment and connection” of human beings and nature to facilitate the next stage of learning.

5.2.3 Development of Outdoor Education and Environmental Education

Outdoor and Environmental Education share common contents and processes but have their own unique characteristics. In the 1960s, Environmental Education scholars once accused Environmental Education administrators of changing the name of outdoor science, natural research, or outdoor education programs to environmental education, but still continuing the same programs as before. Although both are interdisciplinary in nature, the difference is that outdoor education can be applied to any learning goal. Different cultures, history, social values, and special environments make outdoor education activities different experiences in each country.

Environmental Education can take place inside or outside the classroom, or it can be linked to local and global sites. However, the focus of Environmental Education is usually on water, air, and soil quality and the impact of our pollution on these media. Through Environmental Education we hope to understand the disposal methods of solid waste and toxic substances, conduct surveys of urban population expansion, conduct deforestation surveys, understand biodiversity through surveys of endangered animals and plants, or conduct regional studies on drought and floods (Figs. 8.53, 8.54 and 8.55).

Fig. 8.53

The result of deforestation, Malaysia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.54

Landslide along highway, Malaysia (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Fig. 8.55

Wetland management site, Gongliao. New Taipei City, Taiwan (Photo by Arba’at Hassan)

Environmental and Outdoor education have similarities and differences between the two. In short, Outdoor education programs are designed to help learners more effectively absorb practical knowledge by seeing, touching, and smelling as opposed to sitting in a classroom (Figs. 8.56 and 8.57). Most Environmental Education programs assist learners investigate or learn about environmental issues through real-world experiences. However, whether students should try to resolve these issues is controversial (Mogensen 1997; Volk and Cheak 2003; Herman et al. 2018). Although both areas advocate the use of a wide range of topics, Environmental Education is usually applied to higher-level students in social science or natural science courses for deeper teaching (Smith 2001). At the elementary school level, outdoor activities often span more learning curricula and combine social and leisure goals to experience teamwork, service, and mutual learning.

Fig. 8.56

Project-oriented environmental learning has been explored in the vertical wetland studies taught by Ben A. LePage at Mount Hemei Trail, Xindian, New Taipei City, Taiwan (left side), and at Zhudong, Hsinchu, Taiwan (right side) during 2021 and 2022 (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Fig. 8.57

The outdoor education program hopes to help learners more effectively absorb practical knowledge through first-hand materials from nature (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Although Outdoor Education and Environmental Education are mainly conducted through schools, nature centers, and outdoor accommodation facilities provide another option. Environmental Education and outdoor educators mainly promote learning strategies based on experience, which need to be taught to emphasize the context used in problem-based learning situations and the importance of adopting experiences (Fig. 8.58). Environmental Education scholars hope that when exploring content, students will use a variety of sensory experiences to maximize their learning.

Fig. 8.58

Most Environmental Education programs assist learners in investigating environmental issues by discovering teaching and real-world experiences, i.e., new technology. This could be a good example to explain corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a company’s role of building a “home,” not only building a “house” that will last a lifetime for all residents. It has a lifetime bond with the land, as the environment and people live in homelands (Photo courtesy of Ileana Lee, Copyright © H&E Development Company, Tainan, Taiwan. All Rights Reserved)

6 Summary

In this chapter we emphasized the importance of outdoor education. Gardner (1983/2011, 2006) confirmed that humans possess the natural” intelligence to recognize plants, animals, and other natural environments. Therefore, people that have a predilection for nature and the environment do well in outdoor activities and biological scientific investigations. Natural intelligence can be summarized as exploratory intelligence, including the exploration of society and the exploration of nature (Fig. 8.59).

Fig. 8.59

Assembly photos, Natural intelligence can be summarized as exploratory intelligence (top), including the exploration of society and the exploration of nature, such as knowing facts and information about sea level rise (bottom) (Dan-hai New Town, New Taipei City, Taiwan, 2022) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Naturally intelligent methods of displaying expertise in categorizing plants, animals, and cultural artwork, providing Outdoor Education and Environmental Education into the curriculum and teaching provide important educational justifications. Since the early 1940s, outdoor education has been an important educational reform factor that promotes learning in nature. When Environmental Education emerged in the 1970s, it was focused on local and global knowledge. The predecessors of outdoor education were camping, nature research, conservation education, and adventure education. Outdoor education is an experience-based learning program that lends itself well to meeting the goals and objectives of environmental Education.