Keywords

Humanity’s future depends on current education systems. Young generations educated in current education systems will shape the world in the near and far future. How children and youth are educated has far-reaching implications. Education carries pivotal importance in humanity’s desire to create a better world. Quality education will train effective problem finders and solvers who will address the challenges that life and the future present.

Twenty-First-Century Challenges

Modern humans have been populating the earth for around 200,000 years. For many years, human activity as hunter-gatherer nomads and farming settlers was in harmony with nature. During the last millennia, the rise of empires and geographic explorations has led to scientific and technological advancements. Industrial revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the scientific and technological revolutions of the twentieth century have paved the way for the digital revolution in the late twentieth century. The twenty-first-century world is a rapidly changing environment that brings a great deal of challenges for humankind.

Challenges of the twenty-first century involve environmental, economic, and social problems that humans need to solve. Pollution, deforestation, climate change, and natural disasters threaten the basic support systems of life on earth. Population growth, economic stagnation, and financial crises fuel poverty and inequality. Political instability, military conflicts, forced migration, discrimination, and disinformation present a hostile environment for human survival and flourishing. As seen in the latest case of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the challenges of the twenty-first century threaten the human condition at a global scale. In order to tackle these increasingly difficult problems, education plays a key role in raising new generations of humans who can face these challenges.

Education systems around the world are not immune to the challenges of the twenty-first century. Social and economic problems reflect themselves in educational environments. Equitable access to quality education is a meager opportunity in many parts of the world. Schools and educational institutions around the world are dealing with limited resources and responding to rapidly changing demands from stakeholders. Students, teachers, administrators, parents, policymakers, businesses, and other players in the system have different and sometimes competing expectations. Rapid changes in technology and society have disrupted the traditional systems of formal education. Education systems and professionals need to face these complexities and better prepare their students for the future. The challenges of the twenty-first century will be addressed by new generations of individuals equipped with twenty-first-century skills.

Skills for Twenty-First-Century Learners

The complex problems and challenges of the twenty-first century have deemed certain skills more important for addressing these challenges. Several individuals and organizations have offered ideas on what is needed to be effective problem solvers in the new world. The common notion is that the content-based knowledge transmission of traditional education systems is no longer adequate for training the new generation of learners. The importance of new sets of skills and abilities has been discussed for facing the problems of the rapidly changing digital world we live in.

A group of organizations including major technology firms formed the Partnership for twenty-first-Century Skills (P21) in 2002. P21 identified three core subjects and seven skills as twenty-first-century skills (Thrilling & Fadel, 2009). The core subjects are reading, writing, and math with twenty-first-century themes. The seven skills were identified as critical thinking and problem-solving, creativity and innovation, collaboration and teamwork, cross-cultural understanding, literacy in communications and media, literacy in computing and Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and self-reliance with career and learning.

Similar to P21’s classification, the World Economic Forum (2015) proposed a set of 16 essential skills for a new vision in twenty-first-century education. Those skills include six foundational literacies, four competencies, and six character qualities. Foundational literacies are literacy, numeracy, scientific literacy, ICT literacy, financial literacy, and cultural/civic literacy. Competencies include critical thinking/problem-solving, creativity, communication, and collaboration. Character qualities are curiosity, persistence and grit, adaptability, leadership, and social/cultural awareness.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) also provides a vision for the future of skills and education. In the OECD Learning Framework 2030, three transformative competencies are outlined as creating new value, reconciling tensions and dilemmas, and taking responsibility (OECD, 2018). Creating new value competency is related to individual’s adaptability, creativity, curiosity, and open-mindedness. The competency of reconciling tensions and dilemmas involves thinking and acting in integrated, interconnected, and inter-relational ways. The competency of taking responsibility is about sense of responsibility, self-regulation, self-control, self-efficacy, and problem-solving. Future learners equipped with these competencies will exercise agency in developing individual as well as societal well-being.

Skills and competencies put forward by many scholars and organizations have indicated the need for a comprehensive set of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed for the twenty-first century. These competencies include not only content knowledge such as basic literacies but also technical skills such as computing and ICTs, as well as personality characteristics such as self-regulation, curiosity, and adaptability. The twenty-first century features the importance of these KSAOs as well as dynamic and flexible education systems that can effectively cultivate them.

Even though there are some criticisms of the twenty-first-century skill movement in terms of its content, discourse, and evidence base (Davies, 2018; Greenlaw, 2015; Lucas, 2019), a growing body of literature supports its basic premises (Chu et al., 2021; Griffin et al., 2012). Education systems around the world are trying to provide these skills without any common definition or strategy (Joynes et al., 2019). In order to nurture these twenty-first-century KSAOs in new generations, educational practices need to adapt evidence-based systems and strategies. The scientific literature offers guidance in terms of these effective instructional approaches and support systems.

Effective Instructional Strategies for Twenty-First Century

Twenty-first-century skills can be developed through effective educational processes. In order to support educational processes and activities, effective methods and strategies for learning and teaching must be employed. Basic theories and research in human learning and development offer ageless solutions for educational professionals. Research on and applications in the educational sciences, science of psychology, and many other related fields offer valuable strategies for educational practices.

Digital Learning

The digital revolution of the late twentieth century introduced many new technologies for education, work, and daily life. The introduction of ICTs such as personal computers, mobile phones, and the Internet have drastically changed many systems. Technology innovation and diffusion have led individuals and organizations to adopt and integrate these new tools and systems. Education systems have quickly responded to these changes by equipping their learning environments with these technologies. The basic processes and procedures of learning and teaching have been influenced by integrating technology into education. The effective use of technology is now an integral element of twenty-first-century instruction, which also includes elements of learner’s attitudes and motivations, thoughtful engagement, and life/career skills in promoting twenty-first-century skills (Beers, 2011).

Digital learning is a concept used to refer to a set of technology-mediated techniques that is applied to assist student learning, tutoring, instruction, and assessment (Wheeler, 2012). Initially labeled as electronic learning (or e-learning), digital learning (i.e., d-learning) is a broad concept that covers e-learning as well as mobile learning (i.e., m-learning; Basak et al., 2018). Digital learning coalesces content, instruction, and technology by offering a variety of different learning opportunities such as distance and online education, open and distributed learning, hybrid and blended learning, adaptive and personalized learning. Digital learning is not only a supplement to face-to-face education but can also be used as an alternative means of education, seeing as it has been used as emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic (Hodges et al., 2020).

Digital learning is a valuable form of learning and teaching that can enhance educational outcomes. Studies that have compared face-to-face learning and digital learning point out that online learning is not worse than face-to-face learning in terms of student knowledge, skills, and satisfaction (McCutcheon et al., 2015; Paul & Jefferson, 2019). Well-designed experiences of digital learning can even lead to superior outcomes for learning performances in comparison to face-to-face learning (Thai et al., 2020). Similar to traditional educational practices, the outcomes of digital-learning experiences depend on many factors related to students, teachers, and instructional design. Learners’ prior KSAOs influence their attitudes, satisfaction, and performance in digital-learning environments (Islam, 2016; Kauffman, 2015; Özdoğru, 2005). Knowledge and skills of teachers in content, pedagogy, and technology are fundamental in their effective teaching using technology (Gurley, 2018; Koehler & Mishra, 2008; Shea et al., 2006). Instructional design features such as needs assessment, delivery methods, learner-content-instructor interactions, and assessment strategies are also influential in online educational outcomes (Driscoll & Carliner, 2005; McNaught et al., 2012).

Effective digital learning in online and blended learning environments can be promoted by creating collaborative experiences based on a constructivist approach. The community of inquiry (CoI) framework offers a process model for an effective digital-learning experience through three essential interrelated elements: cognitive, social, and teaching presence (Garrison, 2016). Cognitive presence is related to opportunities learners have for constructing and confirming meaningful knowledge by engaging in continuous reflection and discourse. Social presence is about how participants feel belong to the learning community, interact in a trusted environment, and build interpersonal relationships. Teaching presence entails designing, enabling, and guiding cognitive and social processes to achieve personally valuable and educationally relevant outcomes. The CoI framework emphasizes the significance of the social-emotional nature of learning and sense of community in learning environments.

Digital and electronic learning is a multifaceted process that involves many elements of design. Khan’s (2001) framework outlines eight dimensions of effective e-learning environments: institutional, pedagogical, technological, interface design, evaluation, management, resource support, and ethical dimensions. As listed below, each dimension includes many subdimensions that should be considered in the effective use of e-learning (Khan, 2015) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Khan’s (2001) eight dimensions of effective e-learning environments

Full size image

Another model has been offered for the critical factors for success in e-learning for developing countries. Based on the literature and opinions of ICT experts and faculty members, researchers identified a hierarchical model of six dimensions: leaners’ characteristics, instructors’ characteristics, institution and service quality, infrastructure and system quality, course and information quality, and extrinsic motivation (Bhuasiri et al., 2012). As listed below, the dimensions include a total of 22 critical-success factors in e-learning (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Bhuasiri et al.’s (2012) critical-success factors for e-learning

Full size image

As seen in these models and frameworks, digital learning can be designed as a valuable educational experience for supporting students’ and teachers’ learning and development. Digital learning experiences are not only related to technology and institutions but more importantly to individuals and relationships. In accordance with twenty-first-century skills, effective digital-learning experiences can facilitate development of technological literacy and skills as well as personality characteristics and competencies.

Inquiry-Based Learning

Human learning is an undertaking that requires active involvement and participation from the learner. When curiosity and the need for knowledge exists, learning becomes a necessity and the learner actively strives to attain it. In order to make use of these aspects of learning, inquiry-based approaches to learning have been proposed. Inquiry-based learning is defined as “a range of teaching approaches in which learning is stimulated by a question or issue, learning is based on constructing new knowledge and understanding, teacher’s role is one of a facilitator, and there is a move towards self-directed learning” (Spronken-Smith et al., 2011, p. 15). In inquiry-based learning, which is also known as guided inquiry or inquiry-guided learning, students actively participate in creating their own knowledge in a single class or during a semester instead of passively receiving and memorizing information. Inquiry-based learning is considered among the inductive teaching and learning methods, which is a family of approaches that include case-based teaching, design-based learning, discovery learning, just-in-time teaching, problem-based learning, and project-based learning (Prince & Felder, 2006).

Inquiry-based learning has various characteristics and modes. The process of inquiry contributes to learners’ understanding by problematizing the situation, creating a demand for knowledge, enabling discovery and refinement, and applying their knowledge (Edelson et al., 1999). Five characteristics of inquiry-based learning include: learner engagement with a complex open-ended problem or scenario, learner management of inquiry methods and strategies, learner’s use of existing knowledge to identify learning needs, curiosity stimulating tasks that lead the learner to explore and investigate, and learner’s analysis and presentation of evidence to support their response to the problem (Kahn & O’Rourke, 2005). Based on the extent to which teachers provide scaffolding, three modes of inquiry-based learning can take place (Spronken-Smith & Walker, 2010). In structured inquiry, teachers provide a problem and a plan for solution. In guided inquiry, teachers offer questions stimulating inquiry and students work in self-direction to explore these questions. In open inquiry, students create questions and go through the full process themselves.

Research on the effectiveness of inquiry-based learning shows that it can support learning and development in many ways. A meta-analysis of 37 experimental and quasi-experimental research studies published between 1996 and 2006 showed a medium-size effect in favor of inquiry-based science teaching, a large effect on epistemic activities in comparison to others, and a larger effect on teacher-led inquiry compared to student-led inquiry (Furtak et al., 2012). Another meta-analysis of 19 studies from 2005 to 2015 in Turkey with a total sample of 1,521 students indicated inquiry-based learning in comparison to traditional learning to have a large effect on students’ school achievement and medium-size effect on students’ process skills in science and attitudes toward science (Aktamış et al., 2016). Another meta-analysis of 72 studies that looked into the outcomes of guidance in inquiry-based learning showed guidance to have a medium-size effect on learning activities, learning outcomes, and performance success, which was moderated by the type of guidance (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). Effectiveness of mobile device-integrated inquiry-based learning programs was studied in another meta-analysis of 34 research studies that had a total of 2,316 participants from 2007 to 2016 (Zheng et al., 2018). The results indicated mobile device applications to have a large effect on improving student success with greater effect on cognitive outcomes for studies of medium duration (5–8 weeks) and small sample sizes (20–50) using a quasi-experimental design and quantitative analyses.

Effective application of inquiry-based learning requires appropriate design and implementation of instructional activities. Epistemic activities and a combination of conceptual, procedural, and social activities in inquiry-based learning were found to be more effective than conceptual, procedural, and social activities by themselves (Furtak et al., 2012). Epistemic inquiry-based learning activities include training on the nature of science, generating conclusions based on evidence, recording and describing data, and applied activities. Studies on inquiry-based learning have indicated the importance of teacher direction and guidance such as providing process constraints, status overviews, prompts, heuristics, scaffolds, and explanations (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). Effective inquiry-based learning was suggested to have five phases and nine subphases: orientation phase, conceptualization phase (questioning and hypothesis generation subphases), investigation phase (exploration, experimentation, and data interpretation subphases), discussion phase (communication and reflection subphases), and conclusion phase (Pedaste et al., 2015). When implementing inquiry-based learning programs, several aspects related to teachers, courses, and the institutional attributes listed below were suggested to be considered for effective implementation (Spronken-Smith et al., 2011) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Spronken-Smith et al.’s (2011) attributes for effective implementation of inquiry-based learning programs

Full size image

Inquiry-based learning is especially relevant in the context of the twenty-first-century environment. Ease of access to information enables learners to be more active in their learning. Effective implementation of inquiry-based learning in traditional and digital environments will foster development of twenty-first-century competencies and skills (Chu et al., 2021). Through the use of these inductive teaching and learning methods, learners can be supported in terms of creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving.

Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

The human mind does not work in a vacuum but interactively with other minds. The social nature of the human mind and behavior is clearly at work in the learning and teaching processes. In order to reap the power of other minds, cooperative and collaborative learning is offered as an effective means of learning and teaching. In contrast to individualistic and competitive learning, cooperative learning makes use of small groups to make the most of individual and group learning (Razzouk & Johnson, 2012). Similarly, collaborative learning is defined as a process in which learners work in pairs or small groups with the aim of seeking and recognizing abilities and the offerings of individual members (Udvari-Solner, 2012). Members in cooperative and collaborative-learning groups usually have shared authority and responsibility for group actions and outcomes. In cooperative learning, teachers act as a central authority in the class and provide more closed-ended group tasks. In contrast, collaborative-learning group members work interdependently on open-ended and complex tasks to discuss and create a joint problem space in which they co-elaborate their personal meaning and knowledge (Baker, 2015).

Cooperative and collaborative learning have various characteristics and elements. Johnson and Johnson (1999) outlined five elements and distinguished three types of cooperative learning. The five essential elements of cooperative learning include positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing. Students in informal cooperative learning groups work on joint-learning goals in a temporary fashion, from a few minutes up to one class hour. In formal cooperative learning, students work on specific tasks and assignments with shared learning goals, from one class hour up to several weeks. Cooperative base groups consist of heterogeneous members supporting each other academically and socially for one or more years. Tinzmann et al. (1990) described four characteristics of collaborative-learning environments and several roles the teachers and students have in these environments. The four characteristics are stated as: shared knowledge among teachers and students, shared authority among teachers and students, teachers as mediators, and heterogeneous groupings of students. Teachers’ roles include facilitating, modeling, and coaching, whereas students’ roles include setting goals, designing learning tasks, monitoring group members, and assessing group work.

Several studies report positive outcomes of cooperative and collaborative-learning activities. A meta-analysis on 65 research studies published from 1995 to 2011 on face-to-face cooperative learning in elementary school through university settings found it to have a large effect on achievement, a smaller effect on attitudes, and no effect on perceptions (Kyndt et al., 2013). The same study also showed a moderating effect to exist for study domain, students’ age, and culture on the outcomes. Similarly, another meta-analysis on 31 graduate theses in Turkey found that, while cooperative learning has a large effect on student achievement, it has a medium effect on attitudes and no effect on psychomotor outcomes (Alacapınar & Uysal, 2020). Another meta-analysis that investigated the effectiveness of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) education based on 143 studies published between 2005 and 2014 found STEM CSCL to have an overall moderate effect, with the effect being greatest on process outcomes (e.g., individuals’ time on task and argumentation sequences), followed by cognitive outcomes (e.g., factual and applied knowledge, skill, and grade), and affective outcomes (e.g., satisfaction, motivation, efficacy, and attitude; Jeong et al., 2019). In the same study, the effects were found to be moderated by the types of technology and pedagogy, educational levels of learners, and domains of learning.

Cooperative and collaborative learning can be used as an effective instructional approach in both the traditional and digital-learning environments. As seen in the literature, the effect of cooperative and collaborative-learning applications depends on many factors such as learners’ age, subject domains, technology, pedagogy, and culture. Effective applications take these factors into consideration in the design of developmentally and culturally appropriate instructional practices. Traditional cooperative learning methods include student team-achievement divisions, team-games and tournaments, team-assisted individualization or team-accelerated instruction, cooperative integrated reading and composition, jigsaw, learning together, group investigation, and constructive controversy (Kyndt et al., 2013). Collaborative learning is suggested to be designed based on five elements of goals and incentives, tasks, groups, collaboration processes, and assessment (Cho, 2015). Using Johnson and Johnson’s (1999) five components of cooperative learning, an observation tool was developed to measure the 10 characteristics of learning groups listed below (Kern et al., 2007) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Kern et al.’s (2007) characteristics of cooperative learning groups

Full size image

Cooperative and collaborative learning is essential for developing twenty-first-century skills. The complex problems of the twenty-first century require individuals to learn and work together. Well-designed cooperative and collaborative learning strategies in traditional and digital learning environments will enable the development of communication, collaboration, teamwork, and leadership competencies.

Social and Emotional Learning

Academic success and cognitive development have been the primary outcomes of educational systems for many years. In 1990s, the interest in social-emotional development was reinvigorated with the publishing of Daniel Goleman’s (1995) book Emotional Intelligence and the establishment of the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). CASEL is a nonprofit organization that consists of educators, researchers, and advocates in the United States promoting evidence-based social and emotional learning processes in K-12 educational settings. Since then scientists and practitioners have been working on the design and evaluation of social and emotional learning programs and interventions.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is defined as the “(a) mastery and appropriate use of interpersonal and small-group skills (e.g., recognizing, managing, and appropriately expressing one’s emotions), and (b) internalization of prosocial attitudes and values needed to achieve goals, solve problems, become emotionally involved in learning and work, and succeed in school and throughout life” (Johnson & Johnson, 2004, p. 40). SEL is further described with the two important competencies of interpersonal effectiveness and self-actualization and the three essential conditions of cooperative community, constructive conflict resolution, and civic values. CASEL provides a model for systematic SEL in educational settings with the five competence domains of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (Weissberg et al., 2015). The model outlines a systemic SEL programming with classroom-, school-, family-, and community-level partnerships and multiple levels of support in promoting short- and long-term attitudinal and behavioral outcomes in students.

Research on social and emotional learning programs show important benefits in participating students. A meta-analysis of 213 research studies with more than 270 thousand K-12 students showed that students in universal school-based SEL programs had better outcomes in academic performance, social and emotional skills, attitudes toward self and others, positive social behavior, conduct problems, and emotional distress in comparison to control groups (Durlak et al., 2011). Another meta-analysis of 82 interventions that had more than 97 thousand K-12 students) in multiple countries showed positive effects of SEL interventions that were detected up to 18 years after the programs ended (Taylor et al., 2017). In comparison to the control group, participating students of all races, socioeconomic statuses, and location groups had better long-term outcomes in academic and social-emotional outcomes, including higher graduation safe sexual behavior rates and lower rates of drug use.

The impact of SEL programs depends on the elements of design and application. The use of certain practices in SEL programs have been found to moderate these programs’ outcomes. Programs that are sequenced, active, focused, and explicit (SAFE) were more effective in promoting positive academic and social-emotional development (Durlak et al., 2011). SAFE programs use a sequenced step-by-step teaching approach that makes use of active learning strategies, focuses on skill development with sufficient time, and employs explicit learning objectives and goals. Effective SEL programs are staffed with adults who possess personal and professional capabilities in order to implement and expand evidence-based practices, produce an inclusive culture that nurtures caring relationships and self-determination in youth, and enable collaborative school-family-community partnerships to support students’ development (Mahoney et al., 2020). From an ecological perspective, effective programming needs to consider interactive processes among the nested settings of classrooms, schools, families, communities, cities, regions, and countries.

Twenty-first-century skills include not only foundational literacies and competencies but also personality characteristics. Social and emotional learning activities and programs are well-suited strategies for fostering learner’s characteristics such as adaptability, persistence, grit, sense of responsibility, self-regulation, self-control, self-efficacy, leadership, and social/cultural awareness. High quality social and emotional learning programs in digital- and non-digital learning environments are essential for developing and supporting twenty-first-century learners.

Systems and Supports for Twenty-First-Century Learners

Effective evidence-based instructional strategies are needed to cultivate twenty-first-century skills of the current and future learners. In addition to the previously summarized strategies, systems and supports should be designed to enable the desired outcomes. Supportive environments and systems of support should be put together for educating the whole child through their academic, cognitive, ethical, physical, psychological, and socio-emotional development. Based on an ecological perspective and framework of developmental systems, Linda Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) outlined implications from the science of learning and development for educational practices. Their implications are summarized in four areas: productive instructional strategies, social and emotional development, supportive environment, and system of supports.

Productive instructional strategies and social/emotional developmental practices have been in part previously summarized. These instructional strategies are designed to offer learner-centered instruction that fosters conceptual understanding and motivation to learn as well as learning how to learn. Learner-centered instruction utilizes prior knowledge and experience, teaches readiness, and offers personalized and collaborative-learning experiences with cognitive supports. Conceptual understanding can be encouraged by mapping the concepts of the learning domain and by providing explicit instruction and inquiry-based learning. Learners’ motivation can be promoted with challenging tasks, appropriate scaffolding, and interest-driven learning activities. Learning how to learn can be supported through metacognitive awareness and skills, formative feedback, and mastery-oriented performance assessment. Social and emotional learning is important for developing intra- and interpersonal skills, a growth mindset, mindfulness, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and a sense of community.

Supportive learning environments include elements from effective child-care structures, learning communities, and family-staff connections. Smaller class and school sizes, longer grade spans (e.g., K-8 or 6–12), looping or continuity of care, block scheduling, and teaching teams and advisory systems are needed for child-care structures. Effective classroom and school learning communities can be created through consistent routines, identity-safe environments, intentional community-building exercises, and cultural competence. Family-staff connections can be improved through relational trust, staff collaboration, authentic family engagement, parent conferences, and home visits.

Because learning and development take place in more than classrooms and schools, a well-designed system of supports is crucial for educating “the whole child within a whole school and a whole community context” (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020, p. 99). A multi-tiered system of support provides universal design for student learning and develops knowledge of child development in the first tier, while the second tier focuses on diagnostic services, and intensive interventions are implemented in the third tier. Coordinated and integrated inclusive health, mental health, and social services should be constructed through family and community partnerships. Lastly, extended learning opportunities such as out-of-school activities and summer programs need to be utilized.

Conclusion

The complex problems and challenges of the twenty-first century make effective strategies on learning and teaching necessary for educating new generations with the necessary knowledge, skills, and characteristics. Using effective instructional practices as in digital learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative and collaborative learning, and social and emotional learning would be helpful in this pursuit. twenty-first-century learners need to be supported in and outside the classroom with appropriate systems and supports. Supportive learning environments and support systems should be constructed around the learners and their families and communities. Individuals and societies need to come together and act united in this collective endeavor in order to build, implement, and sustain quality education for all.