Abstract
This chapter highlights and discusses the important research studies that have been carried out previously on sulphate removal from wastewaters under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, the role of electron donor addition on biological sulphate reduction and the beneficial role of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are reviewed in this chapter. This chapter describes the fundamentals of the anaerobic sulphate reduction process, the factors affecting biological sulphate reduction and the different bioreactor configurations used for sulphate removal from wastewater.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alon U, Surette MG, Barkai N, Leibler S (1999) Robustness in bacterial chemotaxis. Nature 397:168–171. https://doi.org/10.1038/16483
Al-Zuhair S, El-Naas MH, Al-Hassani H (2008) Sulfate inhibition effect on sulfate reducing bacteria. J Biochem Technol 1:39–44
Alphenaar AP, Visser A, Lettinga G (1993) The effect of liquid upward velocity and hydraulic retention time on granulation in UASB reactors treating wastewater with a high sulphate content. Bioresour Technol 43:249–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(93)90038-D
Andalib M, Zhu J, Nakhla G (2012) A new definition of bed expansion index and voidage for fluidized biofilm-coated particles. Chem Eng J 189–190:244–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.02.065
Baena S, Fardeau ML, Labat M, Ollivier B, Garcia JL, Patel BK (1998) Desulfovibrio aminophilus sp. nov., a novel amino acid degrading and sulfate reducing bacterium from an anaerobic dairy wastewater lagoon. Syst Appl Microbiol 21:498–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80061-1
Barkai N, Leibler S (1997) Robustness in simple biochemical networks. Nature 387:913–917. https://doi.org/10.1038/43199
Barton LL, Fauque GD (2009) Biochemistry, physiology and biotechnology of sulfate‐reducing bacteria. Adv Appl Microbiol. pp. 41–98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2164(09)01202-7
Baskaran V, Nemati M (2006) Anaerobic reduction of sulfate in immobilized cell bioreactors, using a microbial culture originated from an oil reservoir. Biochem Eng J 31:148–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2006.07.007
Behera SK, Rene ER, Murthy DVS (2007) Performance of upflow anoxic bioreactor for wastewater treatment. Int J Environ Sci Technol 4:247–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03326281
Bertolino SM, Rodrigues ICB, Guerra-Sá R, Aquino SF, Leão VA (2012) Implications of volatile fatty acid profile on the metabolic pathway during continuous sulfate reduction. J Environ Manage 103:15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.02.022
Butlin KR, Selwyn SC, Wakerley DS (1956) Sulphide production from sulphate-enriched sewage sludges. J Appl Bacteriol 19:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1956.tb00036.x
Celis LB, Villa-Gómez D, Alpuche-Solís AG, Ortega-Morales BO, Razo-Flores E (2009) Characterization of sulfate-reducing bacteria dominated surface communities during start-up of a down-flow fluidized bed reactor. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 36:111–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-008-0478-7
Celis-García LB, Razo-Flores E, Monroy O (2007) Performance of a down-flow fluidized bed reactor under sulfate reduction conditions using volatile fatty acids as electron donors. Biotechnol Bioeng 97:771–779. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.21288
Cirik K, Dursun N, Sahinkaya E, Çinar Ö (2013) Effect of electron donor source on the treatment of Cr(VI)-containing textile wastewater using sulfate-reducing fluidized bed reactors (FBRs). Bioresour Technol 133:414–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.01.064
D’Acunto, B., Esposito, G., Frunzo, L., Pirozzi, F., 2011. Dynamic modeling of sulfate reducing biofilms. Comput Math Appl 62:2601–2608. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.camwa.2011.07.064
Dangcong P, Bernet N, Delgenes J, Moletta R (1999) Aerobic granular sludge-a case report. Water Res 33:890–893. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00443-6
Davey, M.E., O’toole, G.A., 2000. Microbial biofilms: from ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 64:847–867. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.64.4.847-867.2000
De la Rubia MA, Fernández-Cegrí V, Raposo F, Borja R (2011) Influence of particle size and chemical composition on the performance and kinetics of anaerobic digestion process of sunflower oil cake in batch mode. Biochem Eng J 58–59:162–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2011.09.010
Diez Blanco V, García Encina PA, Fdz-Polanco F (1995) Effects of biofilm growth, gas and liquid velocities on the expansion of an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR). Water Res 29:1649–1654. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(95)00001-2
du Preez LA, Odendaal JP, Maree JP, Ponsonby M (1992) Biological removal of sulphate from industrial effluents using producer gas as energy source. Environ Technol 13:875–882. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593339209385222
Dvorak DH, Hedin RS, Edenborn HM, McIntire PE (1992) Treatment of metal contaminated water using bacterial sulfate reduction: results from pilot-scale reactors. Biotechnol Bioeng 40:609–616
Eldyasti A, Nakhla G, Zhu J (2012) Influence of particles properties on biofilm structure and energy consumption in denitrifying fluidized bed bioreactors (DFBBRs). Bioresour Technol 126:162–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.07.113
Escudié R, Cresson R, Delgenès J-P, Bernet N (2011) Control of start-up and operation of anaerobic biofilm reactors: an overview of 15 years of research. Water Res 45:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.07.081
Fontes Lima DM, Zaiat M (2012) The influence of the degree of back-mixing on hydrogen production in an anaerobic fixed-bed reactor. Int J Hydrogen Energy 37:9630–9635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.03.097
Foston M (2014) Advances in solid-state NMR of cellulose. Curr Opin Biotechnol 27:176–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2014.02.002
Gallegos-Garcia M, Celis LB, Rangel-Méndez R, Razo-Flores E (2009) Precipitation and recovery of metal sulfides from metal containing acidic wastewater in a sulfidogenic down-flow fluidized bed reactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102:91–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.22049
Genari AN, Passos FV, Passos FML (2003) Configuration of a bioreactor for milk lactose hydrolysis. J Dairy Sci 86:2783–2789. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73875-2
Gibson GR (1990) Physiology and ecology of the sulphate-reducing bacteria. J Appl Bacteriol 69:769–797. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01575.x
Goršek A, Tramšek M (2008) Kefir grains production-an approach for volume optimization of two-stage bioreactor system. Biochem Eng J 42:153–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2008.06.009
Grein F, Ramos AR, Venceslau SS, Pereira IAC (2013) Unifying concepts in anaerobic respiration: insights from dissimilatory sulfur metabolism. Biochem Biophys Acta-Bioenerg 1827:145–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbabio.2012.09.001
Hansen TA (1993) Carbon metabolism of sulfate-reducing bacteria. In: Odom JM, Singleton JR (eds) The sulfate-reducing bacteria: contemporary perspectives. Springer, New York, NY, pp 21–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9263-7_2
Hao OJ, Chen JM, Huang L, Buglass RL (1996) Sulfate-reducing bacteria. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 26:155–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389609388489
Hoover R (2001) Composition, molecular structure, and physicochemical properties of tuber and root starches: a review. Carbohydr Polym 45:253–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00260-5
Houbron E, González-López GI, Cano-Lozano V, Rustrían E (2008) Hydraulic retention time impact of treated recirculated leachate on the hydrolytic kinetic rate of coffee pulp in an acidogenic reactor. Water Sci Technol 58:1415–1421. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.492
Hulshoff Pol LW, De Castro Lopes SI, Lettinga G, Lens PNL (2004) Anaerobic sludge granulation. Water Res 38:1376–1389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2003.12.002
Ishii S, Shimoyama T, Hotta Y, Watanabe K (2008) Characterization of a filamentous biofilm community established in a cellulose-fed microbial fuel cell. BMC Microbiol 8:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-8-6
Janyasuthiwong S, Rene ER, Esposito G, Lens PNL (2016) Effect of pH on the performance of sulfate and thiosulfate-fed sulfate reducing inverse fluidized bed reactors. J Environ Eng 142:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001004
Jeihanipour A, Niklasson C, Taherzadeh MJ (2011) Enhancement of solubilization rate of cellulose in anaerobic digestion and its drawbacks. Process Biochem 46:1509–1514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2011.04.003
Jing Z, Hu Y, Niu Q, Liu Y, Li Y-Y, Wang XC (2013) UASB performance and electron competition between methane-producing archaea and sulfate-reducing bacteria in treating sulfate-rich wastewater containing ethanol and acetate. Bioresour Technol 137:349–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.03.137
John RP, Nampoothiri KM, Pandey A (2007) Fermentative production of lactic acid from biomass: an overview on process developments and future perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 74:524–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-006-0779-6
Kaksonen AH, Plumb JJ, Robertson WJ, Riekkola-Vanhanen M, Franzmann PD, Puhakka JA (2006) The performance, kinetics and microbiology of sulfidogenic fluidized-bed treatment of acidic metal- and sulfate-containing wastewater. Hydrometallurgy 83:204–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.03.025
Kang H, Weiland P (1993) Ultimate anaerobic biodegradability of some agro-industrial residues. Bioresour Technol 43:107–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(93)90168-B
Kieu HTQ, Müller E, Horn H (2011) Heavy metal removal in anaerobic semi-continuous stirred tank reactors by a consortium of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Water Res 45:3863–3870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.04.043
Kijjanapanich P, Do AT, Annachhatre AP, Esposito G, Yeh DH, Lens PNL (2014) Biological sulfate removal from construction and demolition debris leachate: effect of bioreactor configuration. J Hazard Mater 269:38–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.10.015
Leustek T, Martin MN, Bick J-A, Davies JP (2000) Pathways and regulation of sulphur metabolism revealed through molecular and genetic studies. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 51:141–165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.51.1.141
Liamleam W, Annachhatre AP (2007) Electron donors for biological sulfate reduction. Biotechnol Adv 25:452–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.05.002
Lopes SIC, Dreissen C, Capela MI, Lens PNL (2008) Comparison of CSTR and UASB reactor configuration for the treatment of sulfate rich wastewaters under acidifying conditions. Enzyme Microb Technol 43:471–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2008.08.001
Maree JP, Hill E (1989) Biological removal of sulphate from industrial effluents and concomitant production of sulphur. Water Sci Technol 21:265–276
Matias PM, Pereira IAC, Soares CM, Carrondo MA (2005) Sulphate respiration from hydrogen in bacteria: a structural biology overview. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 89:292–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.11.003
Mielczarek AT, Kragelund C, Eriksen PS, Nielsen PH (2012) Population dynamics of filamentous bacteria in Danish wastewater treatment plants with nutrient removal. Water Res 46:3781–3795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.009
Mizuno O, Li YY, Noike T (1998) The behavior of sulfate-reducing bacteria in acidogenic phase of anaerobic digestion. Water Res 32:1626–1634. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00372-2
Moestedt J, Nilsson Påledal S, Schnürer A (2013) The effect of substrate and operational parameters on the abundance of sulphate-reducing bacteria in industrial anaerobic biogas digesters. Bioresour Technol 132:327–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.01.043
Morgan-Sagastume F, Larsen P, Nielsen JL, Nielsen PH (2008) Characterization of the loosely attached fraction of activated sludge bacteria. Water Res 42:843–854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.08.026
Mshandete A, Björnsson L, Kivaisi AK, Rubindamayugi MST, Mattiasson B (2006) Effect of particle size on biogas yield from sisal fibre waste. Renew Energy 31:2385–2392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2005.10.015
Muyzer G, Stams AJM (2008) The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate-reducing bacteria. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:441–454. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1892
Nedwell DB, Reynolds PJ (1996) Treatment of landfill leachate by methanogenic and sulphate-reducing digestion. Water Res 30:21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(95)00128-8
O’Sullivan C, Burrell PC, Clarke WP, Blackall LL (2008) The effect of biomass density on cellulose solubilisation rates. Bioresour Technol 99:4723–4731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.09.070
Örlygsson J, Houwen FP, Svensson BH (1994) Influence of hydrogenothrophic methane formation on the thermophilic anaerobic degradation of protein and amino acids. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 13:327–334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.1994.tb00079.x
Ozmihci S, Kargi F (2008) Ethanol production from cheese whey powder solution in a packed column bioreactor at different hydraulic residence times. Biochem Eng J 42:180–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2008.06.017
Papirio S, Esposito G, Pirozzi F (2013a) Biological inverse fluidized-bed reactors for the treatment of low pH- and sulphate-containing wastewaters under different COD conditions. Environ Technol 34:1141–1149. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.737864
Papirio S, Villa-Gomez DK, Esposito G, Pirozzi F, Lens PNL (2013b) Acid mine drainage treatment in fluidized-bed bioreactors by sulfate-reducing bacteria: a critical review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 43:2545–2580. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2012.694328
Peixoto G, Saavedra NK, Varesche MBA, Zaiat M (2011) Hydrogen production from soft-drink wastewater in an upflow anaerobic packed-bed reactor. Int J Hydrogen Energy 36:8953–8966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.05.014
Pepper IL, Rensing C, Gerba CP (2004) Environmental microbial properties and processes, In: Environmental monitoring and characterization. Elsevier, USA, pp 263–280. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012064477-3/50016-3
Pillai CKS, Paul W, Sharma CP (2009) Chitin and chitosan polymers: chemistry, solubility and fiber formation. Prog Polym Sci 34:641–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2009.04.001
Rabus R, Hansen TA, Widdel F (2006) Dissimilatory sulfate- and sulfur-reducing prokaryotes. In: The prokaryotes. Springer New York, NY, pp 659–768. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30742-7_22
Raposo F, Fernández-Cegrí V, de la Rubia MA, Borja R, Béline F, Cavinato C, Demirer G, Fernández B, Fernández-Polanco M, Frigon JC, Ganesh R, Kaparaju P, Koubova J, Méndez R, Menin G, Peene A, Scherer P, Torrijos M, Uellendahl H, Wierinck I, de Wilde V (2011) Biochemical methane potential (BMP) of solid organic substrates: evaluation of anaerobic biodegradability using data from an international interlaboratory study. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 86:1088–1098. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.2622
Reyes-Alvarado LC, Okpalanze NN, Kankanala D, Rene ER, Esposito G, Lens PNL (2017) Forecasting the effect of feast and famine conditions on biological sulphate reduction in an anaerobic inverse fluidized bed reactor using artificial neural networks. Proc Biochem 55:146–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2017.01.021
Rinaudo M (2006) Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog Polym Sci 31:603–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001
Rivas L, Dykes GA, Fegan N (2007) A comparative study of biofilm formation by Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli using epifluorescence microscopy on stainless steel and a microtitre plate method. J Microbiol Methods 69:44–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2006.11.014
Robertson, L.A., Kuenen, J.G., 2006. The colorless sulfur bacteria. In: The prokaryotes. Springer New York, NY, USA, pp 985–1011. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30742-7_31
Sampaio RMM, Timmers RA, Kocks N, André V, Duarte MT, van Hullebusch ED, Farges F, Lens PNL (2010) Zn-Ni sulfide selective precipitation: the role of supersaturation. Sep Purif Technol 74:108–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2010.05.013
Sarti A, Zaiat M (2011) Anaerobic treatment of sulfate-rich wastewater in an anaerobic sequential batch reactor (AnSBR) using butanol as the carbon source. J Environ Manage 92:1537–1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.01.009
Satoh H, Odagiri M, Ito T, Okabe S (2009) Microbial community structures and in situ sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing activities in biofilms developed on mortar specimens in a corroded sewer system. Water Res 43:4729–4739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.07.035
Shao L, Wang T, Li T, Lü F, He P (2013) Comparison of sludge digestion under aerobic and anaerobic conditions with a focus on the degradation of proteins at mesophilic temperature. Bioresour Technol 140:131–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.081
Shen Z, Zhou Y, Wang J (2013) Comparison of denitrification performance and microbial diversity using starch/polylactic acid blends and ethanol as electron donor for nitrate removal. Bioresour Technol 131:33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.12.169
Sheoran AS, Sheoran V, Choudhary RP (2010) Bioremediation of acid-rock drainage by sulphate-reducing prokaryotes: a review. Miner Eng 23:1073–1100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2010.07.001
Show KY, Lee DJ, Chang JS (2011) Bioreactor and process design for biohydrogen production. Bioresour Technol 102:8524–8533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.04.055
Stams AJM, Plugge CM, de Bok FAM, van Houten BHGW, Lens P, Dijkman H, Weijma J (2005) Metabolic interactions in methanogenic and sulfate-reducing bioreactors. Water Sci Technol 52:13–20
Taguchi Y, Sugishima M, Fukuyama K (2004) Crystal structure of a novel zinc-binding ATP Sulfurylase from Thermus thermophilus HB8. Biochemistry 43:4111–4118. https://doi.org/10.1021/bi036052t
Tang K, Baskaran V, Nemati M (2009) Bacteria of the sulphur cycle: an overview of microbiology, biokinetics and their role in petroleum and mining industries. Biochem Eng J 44:73–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2008.12.011
Tsukamoto TK, Killion HA, Miller GC (2004) Column experiments for microbiological treatment of acid mine drainage: low-temperature, low-pH and matrix investigations. Water Res 38:1405–1418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2003.12.012
van Haandel A, Kato MT, Cavalcanti PFF, Florencio L (2006) Anaerobic reactor design concepts for the treatment of domestic wastewater. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technol 5:21–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-005-4888-y
van Houten RT, van der Spoel H, van Aelst AC, Hulshoff Pol LW, Lettinga G (1996) Biological sulfate reduction using synthesis gas as energy and carbon source. Biotechnol Bioeng 50:136–144
van Lier JB, Zee FP, Frijters CTMJ, Ersahin ME (2015) Celebrating 40 years anaerobic sludge bed reactors for industrial wastewater treatment. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technology 14:681–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-015-9375-5
Villa-Gomez D, Ababneh H, Papirio S, Rousseau DPL, Lens PNL (2011) Effect of sulfide concentration on the location of the metal precipitates in inversed fluidized bed reactors. J Hazard Mater 192:200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.05.002
Villa-Gomez DK, Cassidy J, Keesman KJ, Sampaio R, Lens PNL (2014) Sulfide response analysis for sulfide control using a pS electrode in sulfate reducing bioreactors. Water Res 50:48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.10.006
Weijma J, Stams AJM, Hulshoff Pol LW, Lettinga G (2000) Thermophilic sulfate reduction and methanogenesis with methanol in a high rate anaerobic reactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 67:354–363
Widdel F (2006) The genus Desulfotomaculum. In: The prokaryotes. Springer, New York, NY, pp 787–794. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30744-3_25
Xia Y, Cai L, Zhang T, Fang HHP (2012) Effects of substrate loading and co-substrates on thermophilic anaerobic conversion of microcrystalline cellulose and microbial communities revealed using high-throughput sequencing. Int J Hydrogen Energy 37:13652–13659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.02.079
Yang Y, Tsukahara K, Yagishita T, Sawayama S (2004) Performance of a fixed-bed reactor packed with carbon felt during anaerobic digestion of cellulose. Bioresour Technol 94:197–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2003.11.025
Zagury GJ, Kulnieks VI, Neculita CM (2006) Characterization and reactivity assessment of organic substrates for sulphate-reducing bacteria in acid mine drainage treatment. Chemosphere 64:944–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.01.001
Zhou J, He Q, Hemme CL, Mukhopadhyay A, Hillesland K, Zhou A, He Z, Van Nostrand JD, Hazen TC, Stahl DA, Wall JD, Arkin AP (2011) How sulphate-reducing microorganisms cope with stress: lessons from systems biology. Nat Rev Microbiol 9:452–466. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2575
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the European Union through the Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Programme, Environmental Technologies for Contaminated Solids, Soils and Sediments [ETeCoS3, grant agreement FPA no. 2010-0009].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Reyes-Alvarado, L.C., Rene, E.R., Esposito, G., Lens, P.N.L. (2018). Bioprocesses for Sulphate Removal from Wastewater. In: Varjani, S., Gnansounou, E., Gurunathan, B., Pant, D., Zakaria, Z. (eds) Waste Bioremediation. Energy, Environment, and Sustainability. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7413-4_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7413-4_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-10-7412-7
Online ISBN: 978-981-10-7413-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)