Abstract
Technologies for artificial lighting, as illustrated on the left side of Fig. 2.1, have made tremendous progress over the centuries: from fire, with an efficiency of about a tenth of a percent; to incandescent lamps, with an efficiency of about 4 %; to gas discharge lamps, with an efficiency of about 20 %; and soon to solid-state lighting (SSL), with efficiencies that in principle could approach 100 %.
At this point in time, there is virtually no question that SSL will eventually displace its predecessor technologies. A remaining question, however, is what the final efficiency of SSL will be. Will it be, as illustrated on the right side of Fig. 2.1, 50 %, which is what the community (Haitz and Tsao in Phys. Status Solidi A 208:17–29, 2011) has long targeted as its “efficient” lighting goal? Will it be 70 % or higher, which is what some (Phillips et al. in Laser Photon. Rev. 1:307–333, 2007) have called the “ultra-efficient” lighting goal? Or will it be even beyond an effective efficiency of 100 %, something that might be enabled by smart lighting (Kim and Schubert in Science 308:1274–1278, 2005), in which one doesn’t just engineer the efficiency with which light is produced, but the efficiency with which light is used?
In this chapter, we give a perspective on the future of SSL, with a focus on ultra-high efficiencies. We ask, and sketch answers to, three questions. First, what are some of the likely characteristics of ultra-efficient SSL? Second, what are some of the economic benefits of ultra-efficient SSL? And, third, what are some of the challenges associated with the various technological approaches that could be explored for ultra-efficient SSL?
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Notes
- 1.
Rare, but not non-existent. Any iridescent object which supports optical interference phenomena (e.g., opals, soap bubbles, some butterfly wings) would distinguish between spiky and non-spiky illuminants.
- 2.
In our treatment here, we mean the standard color rendering index R a [3].
- 3.
Note that the higher the CRI, the higher the CCT at which the MWLER maximizes, as discussed in Hung [13].
- 4.
Assuming a light-usage-weighted average world electricity price of $120/MWh [31].
- 5.
Indeed, this correlation between GDP and light consumption is being explored as a means to “measure” GDP. See, e.g., Henderson [12].
- 6.
We use a simple logarithmic dependence of lifetime on input power density: log(L/0.03 Mh)=0.23⋅log[(P in /A chip )/(225 W/cm2)], where L is lifetime in Mh and P in /A chip is input power density in W/cm2.
- 7.
This multiplier between the cost of a retail lamp to the cost of the chip within the lamp includes various sub-multipliers that connect the chip to the package, the package to the wholesale lamp, and finally the wholesale lamp to the retail lamp [7, 8]. Note that this multiplier is surprisingly similar to those for higher-power-density chips such as high-power IR lasers [16, 19] inserted into retail laser modules and for low-power-density chips such as solar cells inserted into residential retail panels [1, 6, 18]. Hence, we use the same multiplier across the range of input power densities considered here.
- 8.
To put this in perspective, current chip cost per unit area for state-of-the-art GaN/sapphire chips is much higher (about 20 $/cm2), while for single-crystal Si solar cells is much lower (about $0.02/cm2).
- 9.
Note that this is an underestimate of the thermal resistance for a laser chip, as such chips may be non-square with a large aspect ratio.
- 10.
In other words, for a given input power density, efficiency and heat-sink properties, there is a maximum chip size that enables the temperature rise of the chip to remain manageable. This maximum chip size depends strongly on (inversely as the square of) input power density because the chip size that gives a particular thermal resistance depends strongly on (inversely as the square of) that thermal resistance.
- 11.
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Acknowledgements
We thank Emma Johnson, Justin Sanchez, Emily Stirrup and Jack Wampler for careful reviews of this chapter and of other manuscripts on which this chapter is based, and thank Edward Stephens for helpful consultations. Work at Sandia National Laboratories was supported by Sandia’s Solid-State Lighting Science Energy Frontier Research Center, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory managed and operated by Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed Martin Corporation, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.
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Tsao, J.Y. et al. (2013). Introduction Part B. Ultra-efficient Solid-State Lighting: Likely Characteristics, Economic Benefits, Technological Approaches. In: Seong, TY., Han, J., Amano, H., Morkoc, H. (eds) III-Nitride Based Light Emitting Diodes and Applications. Topics in Applied Physics, vol 126. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5863-6_2
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