Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Giardia

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Molecular Parasitology

Abstract

The intestinal protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis (syn. Giardia lamblia, Giardia intestinalis) causes diarrhoea in humans and animals worldwide. The life cycle of G. duodenalis consists of two stages, the flagellated trophozoite proliferating in the upper part of the small intestine and the nonproliferative cyst representing the infectious stage of the parasite. Both stages can be handled in vitro and in vivo. Trophozoites are pear-shaped, motile cells exhibiting a convex dorsal and a concave ventral side. The cell body is formed by a microtubule cytoskeleton. The whole genome contained in two diploid nuclei per trophozoite has been sequenced and characterised. It has some prokaryote-like features such as short promoter sequences. Moreover, some key enzymes of energy and intermediate metabolisms share common features with prokaryotic enzymes and may have been acquired by lateral transfer. Giardia does not contain mitochondria and peroxisomes, but mitosomes, most likely an evolutionarily reduced version of a mitochondrion. The energy metabolism is chemoheterotrophic and works under anaerobic or semiaerobic conditions with glucose as main energy and carbon source and arginine as another important energy source. The present book chapter selectively reviews current knowledge in Giardia research highlighting its basic genetic, physiological and, to a lower extent, its immunological properties. Furthermore, this chapter also shows that G. duodenalis is a suitable cellular model system for the investigation of fundamental biological principles.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abel ES, Davids BJ, Robles LD, Loflin CE, Gillin FD, Chakrabarti R (2001) Possible roles of protein kinase A in cell motility and excystation of the early diverging eukaryote Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 276(13):10320–10329

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adam RD (2000) The Giardia lamblia genome. Int J Parasitol 30(4):475–484

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aldritt SM, Tien P, Wang CC (1985) Pyrimidine salvage in Giardia lamblia. J Exp Med 161(3):437–445

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ankarklev J, Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Ringqvist E, Troell K, Svärd SG (2010) Behind the smile: cell biology and disease mechanisms of Giardia species. Nat Rev Microbiol 8(6):413–422

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banik S, Renner Viveros P, Seeber F, Klotz C, Ignatius R, Aebischer T (2013) Giardia duodenalis arginine deiminase modulates the phenotype and cytokine secretion of human dendritic cells by depletion of arginine and formation of ammonia. Infect Immun 81(7):2309–2317

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baum KF, Berens RL, Marr JJ, Harrington JA, Spector T (1989) Purine deoxynucleoside salvage in Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 264(35):21087–21090

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benchimol M, Piva B, Campanati L, de Souza W (2004) Visualization of the funis of Giardia lamblia by high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy – new insights. J Struct Biol 147(2):102–115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bermudez-Brito M, Plaza-Díaz J, Fontana L, Muñoz-Quezada S, Gil A (2013) In vitro cell and tissue models for studying host-microbe interactions: a review. Br J Nutr 109(Suppl 2):S27–S34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birkeland SR, Preheim SP, Davids BJ, Cipriano MJ, Palm D, Reiner DS, Svärd SG, Gillin FD, McArthur AG (2010) Transcriptome analyses of the Giardia lamblia life cycle. Mol Biochem Parasitol 174(1):62–65

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DM, Upcroft JA, Edwards MR, Upcroft P (1998) Anaerobic bacterial metabolism in the ancient eukaryote Giardia duodenalis. Int J Parasitol 28(1):149–164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DM, Upcroft JA, Upcroft P (1996a) A H2O-producing NADH oxidase from the protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis. Eur J Biochem 241(1):155–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DM, Upcroft JA, Upcroft P (1996b) A thioredoxin reductase-class of disulphide reductase in the protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 83(2):211–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee A, Carpentieri A, Ratner DM, Bullitt E, Costello CE, Robbins PW, Samuelson J (2010) Giardia cyst wall protein 1 is a lectin that binds to curled fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer. PLoS Pathog 6(8):e1001059

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu PW, Huang YC, Pan YJ, Wang CH, Sun CH (2010) A novel family of cyst proteins with epidermal growth factor repeats in Giardia lamblia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(5):e677

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho CC, Su LH, Huang YC, Pan YJ, Sun CH (2012) Regulation of a Myb transcription factor by cyclin-dependent kinase 2 in Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 287(6):3733–3750

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cotton JA, Beatty JK, Buret AG (2011) Host parasite interactions and pathophysiology in Giardia infections. Int J Parasitol 41(9):925–933

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dan M, Wang AL, Wang CC (2000) Inhibition of pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase gene expression in Giardia lamblia by a virus-mediated hammerhead ribozyme. Mol Microbiol 36(2):447–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dan M, Wang CC (2000) Role of alcohol dehydrogenase E (ADHE) in the energy metabolism of Giardia lamblia. Mol Biochem Parasitol 109(1):25–36

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davids BJ, Mehta K, Fesus L, McCaffery JM, Gillin FD (2004) Dependence of Giardia lamblia encystation on novel transglutaminase activity. Mol Biochem Parasitol 136(2):173–180

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davids BJ, Reiner DS, Birkeland SR, Preheim SP, Cipriano MJ, McArthur AG, Gillin FD (2006) A new family of giardial cysteine-rich non-VSP protein genes and a novel cyst protein. PLoS One 1:e44

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis-Hayman SR, Nash TE (2002) Genetic manipulation of Giardia lamblia. Mol Biochem Parasitol 122(1):1–7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson SC (2010) An insider’s guide to the microtubule cytoskeleton of Giardia. Cell Microbiol 12(5):588–598

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson SC, House SA (2010a) Imaging and analysis of the microtubule cytoskeleton in giardia. Methods Cell Biol 97:307–339

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson SC, House SA (2010b) Life with eight flagella: flagellar assembly and division in Giardia. Curr Opin Microbiol 13(4):480–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • de Carvalho TB, David EB, Coradi ST, Guimarães S (2008) Protease activity in extracellular products secreted in vitro by trophozoites of Giardia duodenalis. Parasitol Res 104(1):185–190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckmann L (2003) Mucosal defences against Giardia. Parasite Immunol 25(5):259–270

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards MR, Gilroy FV, Jimenez BM, O’Sullivan WJ (1989) Alanine is a major end product of metabolism by Giardia lamblia: a proton nuclear magnetic resonance study. Mol Biochem Parasitol 37(1):19–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards MR, Knodler LA, Wilson JR, Schofield PJ (1993) The transport and metabolism of alanine by Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 61(1):49–57

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards MR, Schofield PJ, O’Sullivan WJ, Costello M (1992) Arginine metabolism during culture of Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 53(1–2):97–103

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elmendorf HG, Singer SM, Pierce J, Cowan J, Nash TE (2001) Initiator and upstream elements in the alpha2-tubulin promoter of Giardia lamblia. Mol Biochem Parasitol 113(1):157–169

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emelyanov VV, Goldberg AV (2011) Fermentation enzymes of Giardia intestinalis, pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and hydrogenase, do not localize to its mitosomes. Microbiology 157(Pt 6):1602–1611

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faso C, Hehl AB (2011) Membrane trafficking and organelle biogenesis in Giardia lamblia: use it or lose it. Int J Parasitol 41(5):471–480

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faso C, Konrad C, Schraner EM, Hehl AB (2013) Export of cyst wall material and Golgi organelle neogenesis in Giardia lamblia depend on endoplasmic reticulum exit sites. Cell Microbiol. 15(4):537–553

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng JM, Sun J, Xin DD, Wen JF (2012) Comparative analysis of the 5S rRNA and its associated proteins reveals unique primitive rather than parasitic features in Giardia lamblia. PLoS One 7(6):e36878

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes PD, Assreuy J (1997) Role of nitric oxide and superoxide in Giardia lamblia killing. Braz J Med Biol Res 30(1):93–99

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franzén O, Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Castro E, Sherwood E, Ankarklev J, Reiner DS, Palm D, Andersson JO, Andersson B, Svärd SG (2009) Draft genome sequencing of giardia intestinalis assemblage B isolate GS: is human giardiasis caused by two different species? PLoS Pathog 5(8):e1000560

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genschel U (2004) Coenzyme A biosynthesis: reconstruction of the pathway in archaea and an evolutionary scenario based on comparative genomics. Mol Biol Evol 21:1242–1251

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerwig GJ, van Kuik JA, Leeflang BR, Kamerling JP, Vliegenthart JF, Karr CD, Jarroll EL (2002) The Giardia intestinalis filamentous cyst wall contains a novel beta(1–3)-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine polymer: a structural and conformational study. Glycobiology 12(8):499–505

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson C, Schanen B, Chakrabarti D, Chakrabarti R (2006) Functional characterisation of the regulatory subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A homologue of Giardia lamblia: differential expression of the regulatory and catalytic subunits during encystation. Int J Parasitol 36(7):791–799

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halliez MC, Buret AG (2013) Extra-intestinal and long term consequences of Giardia duodenalis infections. World J Gastroenterol 19:8974–8985

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hausmann S, Altura MA, Witmer M, Singer SM, Elmendorf HG, Shuman S (2004) Yeast-like mRNA capping apparatus in Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 280:12077–12086

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hehl AB, Marti M (2004) Secretory protein trafficking in Giardia intestinalis. Mol Microbiol 53(1):19–28

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hehl AB, Marti M, Köhler P (2000) Stage-specific expression and targeting of cyst wall protein-green fluorescent protein chimeras in Giardia. Mol Biol Cell 11(5):1789–1800

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huang YC, Su LH, Lee GA, Chiu PW, Cho CC, Wu JY, Sun CH (2008) Regulation of cyst wall protein promoters by Myb2 in Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 283(45):31021–31029

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchins JR (2014) What’s that gene (or protein)? Online resources for exploring functions of genes, transcripts, and proteins. Mol Biol Cell 25:1187–1201

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jarroll EL, Manning P, Berrada A, Hare D, Lindmark DG (1989) Biochemistry and metabolism of Giardia. J Protozool 36(2):190–197

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Franzén O, Ankarklev J, Xu F, Nohýnková E, Andersson JO, Svärd SG, Andersson B (2010) Genome analysis and comparative genomics of a Giardia intestinalis assemblage E isolate. BMC Genomics 11:543

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez BM, O’Sullivan WJ (1994) CTP synthetase and enzymes of pyrimidine ribonucleotide metabolism in Giardia intestinalis. Int J Parasitol 24(5):713–718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knodler LA, Noiva R, Mehta K, McCaffery JM, Aley SB, Svärd SG, Nystul TG, Reiner DS, Silberman JD, Gillin FD (1999) Novel protein-disulfide isomerases from the early-diverging protist Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 274(42):29805–29811

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knodler LA, Schofield PJ, Edwards MR (1995) L-arginine transport and metabolism in Giardia intestinalis support its position as a transition between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic kingdoms. Microbiology 141(Pt 9):2063–2070

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad C, Spycher C, Hehl AB (2010) Selective condensation drives partitioning and sequential secretion of cyst wall proteins in differentiating Giardia lamblia. PLoS Pathog 6(4):e1000835

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulakova L, Singer SM, Conrad J, Nash TE (2006) Epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the control of Giardia lamblia antigenic variation. Mol Microbiol 61(6):1533–1542

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leitsch D (2015) Drug resistance in the microaerophilic parasite. Curr Trop Med Rep 2(3):128–135

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leitsch D, Burgess AG, Dunn LA, Krauer KG, Tan K, Duchêne M, Upcroft P, Eckmann L, Upcroft JA (2011) Pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and thioredoxin reductase are involved in 5-nitroimidazole activation while flavin metabolism is linked to 5-nitroimidazole resistance in Giardia lamblia. J Antimicrob Chemother 66(8):1756–1765

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li W, Saraiya AA, Wang CC (2011) Gene regulation in Giardia lamblia involves a putative microRNA derived from a small nucleolar RNA. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5(10):e1338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li W, Saraiya AA, Wang CC (2012) The profile of snoRNA-derived microRNAs that regulate expression of variant surface proteins in Giardia lamblia. Cell Microbiol 14(9):1455–1473

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lujan HD (2011) Mechanisms of adaptation in the intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia. Essays Biochem 51:177–191

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luján HD, Mowatt MR, Conrad JT, Bowers B, Nash TE (1995) Identification of a novel Giardia lamblia cyst wall protein with leucine-rich repeats. Implications for secretory granule formation and protein assembly into the cyst wall. J Biol Chem 270(49):29307–29313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magne D, Chochillon C, Favennec L, Kapel N, Savel J, Gobert JG (1994) Intestinal lipid metabolism in suckling rats infected with Giardia duodenalis. Parasitol Res 80(6):528–530

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magne D, Favennec L, Chochillon C, Gorenflot A, Meillet D, Kapel N, Raichvarg D, Savel J, Gobert JG (1991) Role of cytoskeleton and surface lectins in Giardia duodenalis attachment to Caco2 cells. Parasitol Res 77(8):659–662

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marti M, Hehl AB (2003) Encystation-specific vesicles in Giardia: a primordial Golgi or just another secretory compartment? Trends Parasitol 19(10):440–446

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marti M, Regös A, Li Y, Schraner EM, Wild P, Müller N, Knopf LG, Hehl AB (2003) An ancestral secretory apparatus in the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. J Biol Chem 278(27):24837–24848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mastronicola D, Falabella M, Forte E, Testa F, Sarti P, Giuffre A (2015) Antioxidant defence systems in the protozoan pathogen Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol

    Google Scholar 

  • Mastronicola D, Testa F, Forte E, Bordi E, Pucillo LP, Sarti P, Giuffrè A (2010) Flavohemoglobin and nitric oxide detoxification in the human protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 399(4):654–658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McArthur AG, Knodler LA, Silberman JD, Davids BJ, Gillin FD, Sogin ML (2001) The evolutionary origins of eukaryotic protein disulfide isomerase domains: new evidence from the Amitochondriate protist Giardia lamblia. Mol Biol Evol 18(8):1455–1463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendis AH, Thompson RC, Reynoldson JA, Armson A, Meloni BP, Gunsberg S (1992) The uptake and conversion of L-[U14C-] aspartate and L-[U14C-] alanine to 14CO2 by intact trophozoites of Giardia duodenalis. Comp Biochem Physiol B 102(2):235–239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Midlej V, Meinig I, de Souza W, Benchimol M (2013) A new set of carbohydrate-positive vesicles in encysting Giardia lamblia. Protist 164(2):261–271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison HG, McArthur AG, Gillin FD, Aley SB, Adam RD, Olsen GJ, Best AA, Cande WZ, Chen F, Cipriano MJ, Davids BJ, Dawson SC, Elmendorf HG, Hehl AB, Holder ME, Huse SM, Kim UU, Lasek-Nesselquist E, Manning G, Nigam A, Nixon JE, Palm D, Passamaneck NE, Prabhu A, Reich CI, Reiner DS, Samuelson J, Svard SG, Sogin ML (2007) Genomic minimalism in the early diverging intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia. Science 317(5846):1921–1926

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller J, Nillius D, Hehl A, Hemphill A, Müller N (2009) Stable expression of Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase A (GusA) in Giardia lamblia: application to high-throughput drug susceptibility testing. J Antimicrob Chemother 64(6):1187–1191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Müller J, Rout S, Leitsch D, Vaithilingam J, Hehl A, Müller N (2015) Comparative characterisation of two nitroreductases from Giardia lamblia as potential activators of nitro compounds. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 5:37–43

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Müller J, Schildknecht P, Müller N (2013) Metabolism of nitro drugs metronidazole and nitazoxanide in Giardia lamblia: characterization of a novel nitroreductase (GlNR2). J Antimicrob Chemother 68(8):1781–1789

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Müller J, Sterk M, Hemphill A, Müller N (2007) Characterization of Giardia lamblia WB C6 clones resistant to nitazoxanide and to metronidazole. J Antimicrob Chemother 60(2):280–287

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Müller N, Gottstein B (1998) Antigenic variation and the murine immune response to Giardia lamblia. Int J Parasitol 28(12):1829–1839

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller N, von Allmen N (2005) Recent insights into the mucosal reactions associated with Giardia lamblia infections. Int J Parasitol 35(13):1339–1347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munagala N, Wang CC (2002) The pivotal role of guanine phosphoribosyltransferase in purine salvage by Giardia lamblia. Mol Microbiol 44(4):1073–1079

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nash TE (1997) Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia and the host’s immune response. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 352(1359):1369–1375

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nash TE, Banks SM, Alling DW, Merritt JW, Conrad JT (1990) Frequency of variant antigens in Giardia lamblia. Exp Parasitol 71(4):415–421

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nash TE, Merritt JW, Conrad JT (1991) Isolate and epitope variability in susceptibility of Giardia lamblia to intestinal proteases. Infect Immun 59(4):1334–1340

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nash TE, Mowatt MR (1992) Characterization of a Giardia lamblia variant-specific surface protein (VSP) gene from isolate GS/M and estimation of the VSP gene repertoire size. Mol Biochem Parasitol 51(2):219–227

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nillius D, Müller J, Müller N (2011) Nitroreductase (GlNR1) increases susceptibility of Giardia lamblia and Escherichia coli to nitro drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 66(5):1029–1035

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nixon JE, Field J, McArthur AG, Sogin ML, Yarlett N, Loftus BJ, Samuelson J (2003) Iron-dependent hydrogenases of Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia: activity of the recombinant entamoebic enzyme and evidence for lateral gene transfer. Biol Bull 204(1):1–9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nixon JE, Wang A, Field J, Morrison HG, McArthur AG, Sogin ML, Loftus BJ, Samuelson J (2002) Evidence for lateral transfer of genes encoding ferredoxins, nitroreductases, NADH oxidase, and alcohol dehydrogenase 3 from anaerobic prokaryotes to Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica. Eukaryot Cell 1(2):181–190

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nygaard T, Bennett CC, Grossman G, Edwards MR, Schofield PJ (1994) Efflux of alanine by Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 64(1):145–152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paget TA, Raynor MH, Shipp DW, Lloyd D (1990) Giardia lamblia produces alanine anaerobically but not in the presence of oxygen. Mol Biochem Parasitol 42(1):63–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papanastasiou P, Hiltpold A, Bommeli C, Köhler P (1996) The release of the variant surface protein of Giardia to its soluble isoform is mediated by the selective cleavage of the conserved carboxy-terminal domain. Biochemistry 35(31):10143–10148

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pegado MG, de Souza W (1994) Role of surface components in the process of interaction of Giardia duodenalis with epithelial cells in vitro. Parasitol Res 80(4):320–326

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prucca CG, Lujan HD (2009) Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia. Cell Microbiol 11(12):1706–1715

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prucca CG, Rivero FD, Luján HD (2011) Regulation of antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia. Annu Rev Microbiol 65:611–630

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prucca CG, Slavin I, Quiroga R, Elías EV, Rivero FD, Saura A, Carranza PG, Luján HD (2008) Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia is regulated by RNA interference. Nature 456(7223):750–754

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiner DS, Hetsko ML, Meszaros JG, Sun CH, Morrison HG, Brunton LL, Gillin FD (2003) Calcium signaling in excystation of the early diverging eukaryote, Giardia lamblia. J Biol Chem 278(4):2533–2540

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ringqvist E, Palm JE, Skarin H, Hehl AB, Weiland M, Davids BJ, Reiner DS, Griffiths WJ, Eckmann L, Gillin FD, Svärd SG (2008) Release of metabolic enzymes by Giardia in response to interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. Mol Biochem Parasitol 159(2):85–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rivero FD, Saura A, Prucca CG, Carranza PG, Torri A, Lujan HD (2010) Disruption of antigenic variation is crucial for effective parasite vaccine. Nat Med 16:551–557

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rópolo AS, Touz MC (2010) A lesson in survival, by Giardia lamblia. ScientificWorldJournal 10:2019–2031

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roxström-Lindquist K, Palm D, Reiner D, Ringqvist E, Svärd SG (2006) Giardia immunity – an update. Trends Parasitol 22(1):26–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan U, Cacciò SM (2013) Zoonotic potential of Giardia. Int J Parasitol 43(12–13):943–956

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salzman A, Denenberg AG, Ueta I, O’Connor M, Linn SC, Szabó C (1996) Induction and activity of nitric oxide synthase in cultured human intestinal epithelial monolayers. Am J Physiol 270:G565–G573

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson J, Robbins P (2011) A simple fibril and lectin model for cyst walls of Entamoeba and perhaps Giardia. Trends Parasitol 27(1):17–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez LB (1998) Aldehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-acetylating) and the mechanism of ethanol formation in the amitochondriate protist, Giardia lamblia. Arch Biochem Biophys 354(1):57–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saraiya AA, Li W, Wang CC (2011) A microRNA derived from an apparent canonical biogenesis pathway regulates variant surface protein gene expression in Giardia lamblia. RNA 17(12):2152–2164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield PJ, Edwards MR, Grossman G, Tutticci EA (1995) Amino acid exchange activity of the alanine transporter of Giardia intestinalis. Exp Parasitol 80(1):124–132

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield PJ, Edwards MR, Kranz P (1991) Glucose metabolism in Giardia intestinalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 45(1):39–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer SM, Elmendorf HG, Conrad JT, Nash TE (2001) Biological selection of variant-specific surface proteins in Giardia lamblia. J Infect Dis 183(1):119–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith NC, Bryant C, Boreham PF (1988) Possible roles for pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and thiol-dependent peroxidase and reductase activities in resistance to nitroheterocyclic drugs in Giardia intestinalis. Int J Parasitol 18(7):991–997

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Singer SM (2010) Giardia duodenalis: the double-edged sword of immune responses in giardiasis. Exp Parasitol 126(3):292–297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sousa MC, Gonçalves CA, Bairos VA, Poiares-Da-Silva J (2001) Adherence of Giardia lamblia trophozoites to Int-407 human intestinal cells. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8(2):258–265

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadelmann B, Hanevik K, Andersson MK, Bruserud O, Svärd SG (2013) The role of arginine and arginine-metabolizing enzymes during Giardia – host cell interactions in vitro. BMC Microbiol 13

    Google Scholar 

  • Stadelmann B, Merino MC, Persson L, Svärd SG (2012) Arginine consumption by the intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis reduces proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells. PLoS One 7(9):e45325

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Suguri S, Henze K, Sánchez LB, Moore DV, Müller M (2001) Archaebacterial relationships of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene reveal mosaicism of Giardia intestinalis core metabolism. J Eukaryot Microbiol 48(4):493–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tejman-Yarden N, Miyamoto Y, Leitsch D, Santini J, Debnath A, Gut J, McKerrow JH, Reed SL, Eckmann L (2013) A reprofiled drug, auranofin, is effective against metronidazole-resistant Giardia lamblia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57(5):2029–2035

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson RC, Hopkins RM, Homan WL (2000) Nomenclature and genetic groupings of Giardia infecting mammals. Parasitol Today 16(5):210–213

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Touz MC, Lujan HD, Hayes SF, Nash TE (2003) Sorting of encystation-specific cysteine protease to lysosome-like peripheral vacuoles in Giardia lamblia requires a conserved tyrosine-based motif. J Biol Chem 278(8):6420–6426

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Touz MC, Rópolo AS, Rivero MR, Vranych CV, Conrad JT, Svard SG, Nash TE (2008) Arginine deiminase has multiple regulatory roles in the biology of Giardia lamblia. J Cell Sci 121(Pt 17):2930–2938

    Google Scholar 

  • Townson SM, Upcroft JA, Upcroft P (1996) Characterisation and purification of pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase from Giardia duodenalis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 79(2):183–193

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vranych CV, Rivero MR, Merino MC, Mayol GF, Zamponi N, Maletto BA, Pistoresi-Palencia MC, Touz MC, Rópolo AS (2014) SUMOylation and deimination of proteins: two epigenetic modifications involved in Giardia encystation. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1843(9):1805–1817

    Google Scholar 

  • Wampfler PB, Faso C, Hehl AB (2014) The Cre/loxP system in Giardia lamblia: genetic manipulations in a binucleate tetraploid protozoan. Int J Parasitol. 44(8):497–506

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward HD, Alroy J, Lev BI, Keusch GT, Pereira ME (1988) Biology of Giardia lamblia. Detection of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine as the only surface saccharide moiety and identification of two distinct subsets of trophozoites by lectin binding. J Exp Med 167(1):73–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yee J, Mowatt MR, Dennis PP, Nash TE (2000) Transcriptional analysis of the glutamate dehydrogenase gene in the primitive eukaryote, Giardia lamblia. Identification of a primordial gene promoter. J Biol Chem 275(15):11432–11439

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yichoy M, Duarte TT, De Chatterjee A, Mendez TL, Aguilera KY, Roy D, Roychowdhury S, Aley SB, Das S (2011) Lipid metabolism in Giardia: a post-genomic perspective. Parasitology 138(3):267–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Yichoy M, Nakayasu ES, Shpak M, Aguilar C, Aley SB, Almeida IC, Das S (2009) Lipidomic analysis reveals that phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine are newly generated phospholipids in an early-divergent protozoan, Giardia lamblia. Mol Biochem Parasitol 165(1):67–78

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Andrew Hemphill for carefully reading the manuscript and providing us with the electron microscope images included in Fig. 4.1, supported by a grant obtained from the Swiss National Science Foundation (No. 31003A-138353).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Parasitology, Vetsuisse and Medical Faculty, University of Berne, Länggass-Strasse 122, Bern, CH – 3012, Switzerland

    Norbert Müller & Joachim Müller

Authors
  1. Norbert Müller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joachim Müller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Norbert Müller .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Julia Walochnik

  2. Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria

    Michael Duchêne

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer-Verlag Wien

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Müller, N., Müller, J. (2016). Giardia . In: Walochnik, J., Duchêne, M. (eds) Molecular Parasitology. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1416-2_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation