Abstract
At about the same time that Thomson (1897) discovered that all atoms emit electrons, photons with energy in the range 1–500 keV, called X-rays, were observed by Röntgen (1896). Photons with energy greater than 500 keV, called gamma (γ) rays, were subsequently observed by Villard (1900). Einstein (1905) then suggested that a photon particle of energy, hv, and zero mass is an electromagnetic wave of frequency, v, and vice versa. The nuclear theory of matter was then introduced by Rutherford (1911, 1914) who proposed that an atom, which has a radius of approximately 10-8 cm, actually consists of a swarm of electrons surrounding a positively charged nucleus whose radius is less than 10-12cm. The subsequent discovery of the proton by Rutherford and Chadwick (1921) further confirmed the speculation that the nucleus contains positively charged particles. The neutron was then discovered (Chadwick, 1932; Curie and Joliot, 1932), and Heisenberg (1932) proposed that the atomic nucleus contains the neutral neutrons as well as the protons. At about this time, studies of cosmic rays resulted in the discovery of the positron (Anderson, 1932), which differs from the electron only in that its charge is positive. Although similar antiparticles for the proton and neutron were expected on theoretical grounds, they were not observed until the advent of large accelerators (Chamberlain et al., 1955). The properties of these early fundamental particles are given in Table 37.
“Certain physical investigations in the past year, make it probable to my mind that some portion of sub-atomic energy is actually being set free in the stars. F. W. Aston’s experiments seem to leave no room for doubt that all the elements are constituted out of hydrogen atoms bound together with negative electrons. The nucleus of the helium atom, for example, consists of four hydrogen atoms bound with two electrons. But Aston has further shown that the mass of the helium atom is less than the sum of the masses of the four hydrogen atoms which enter into it. ... Now mass cannot be annihilated, and the deficit can only represent the energy set free in the transmutation. ... If only five per cent of a star’s mass consists initially of hydrogen atoms, which are gradually being combined to form more complex elements, the total heat liberated will more than suffice for our demands, and we need look no further for the source of a star’s energy. ... If, indeed, the sub-atomic energy in the star is being freely used to maintain their great furnaces, it seems to bring a little nearer to fulfillment our dream of controlling this latent power for the well being of the human race—or for its suicide.”
A. S. EDdington (1920)
“We therefore feel justified in advancing tentatively the hypothesis that cosmic rays are produced in the super-nova process. ... With all reserve we advance the view that a super-nova represents the transition of an ordinary star into a neutron star, consisting mainly of neutrons.”
W. Baade and F. Zwicky (1934)
“When the conditions depart widely from being static, there is no necessary tendency towards equipartition, but the energy may instead become enormously concentrated into certain small parts of the system. Thus in the crack of a whip the tip of the lash is moving faster than the speed of sound, though the coachman’s wrist never moves fast at all. Again, when a large sea-wave strikes the wall of a lighthouse, spray is thrown up to a great height, and this in spite of its later rise being much slowed by air resistance. ... It is suggested that cosmic rays may originate from some mechanism of this kind, and though there may be other possibilities, the most obvious source is from the stormy seas that must cover the surface of many of the stars.”
C. Darwin (1949)
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Lang, K.R. (1974). Nuclear Astrophysics and High Energy Particles. In: Astrophysical Formulae. Springer Study Edition. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-11188-8_4
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