Abstract
Lignocelluloses are abundant and nonfood-based materials that are considered as the most suitable feedstocks for the future energy production. However, these materials have naturally evolved to resist against physical and biological attacks. Thus, the conversion yield of lignocellulosic materials without a preprocessing step, called pretreatment, is not typically high enough for a process to be commercially viable. However, in the last decade or so, continued worldwide research efforts resulted in a significant improvement in the understanding of the biomass characteristics that influence subsequent biological conversions. The cell wall composition, characteristics, components distribution, and linkage between different parts are some of the factors that have been shown to have significant effects on biological conversion of lignocelluloses. In this chapter, different aspects of the parameters affecting the pretreatment and progress in the characteristic modification of lignocelluloses are reviewed. Furthermore, the challenges and conflicts in the related researches are discussed and some suggestions with concluding remarks are presented. Moreover, the most important processes, including pretreatment with acid, alkali, and cellulosic solvents are presented. The fundamental reactions and biomass structural changes in the processes imparted by these leading pretreatments, as well as recent progresses, are also reviewed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aad G, Abbott B, Abdallah J, Abdelalim AA, Abdesselam A, Abdinov O, Abi B, Abolins M et al (2010) Search for new particles in two-jet final states in 7 TeV proton–proton collisions with the ATLAS detector at the LHC. Phys Rev Lett 105:161801
Ago M, Endo T, Hirotsu T (2004) Crystalline transformation of native cellulose from cellulose I to cellulose ID polymorph by a ball-milling method with a specific amount of water. Cellulose 11:163–167
Alvira P, Tomas-Pejo E, Ballesteros M, Negro MJ (2010) Pretreatment technologies for an efficient bioethanol production process based on enzymatic hydrolysis: a review. Bioresour Technol 101:4851–4861
Aravamuthan RG (2004) Pulping: chemical pulping. In: Jeffery B (ed) Encyclopedia of forest sciences. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 904–910
Bak JS, Ko JK, Han YH, Lee BC, Choi IG, Kim KH (2009) Improved enzymatic hydrolysis yield of rice straw using electron beam irradiation pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 100:1285–1290
Bak JS, Kim MD, Choi IG, Kim KH (2010) Biological pretreatment of rice straw by fermenting with Dichomitus squalens. N Biotechnol 27:424–434
Ballesteros I, Oliva JM, Navarro AA, Gonzalez A, Carrasco J, Ballesteros M (2000) Effect of chip size on steam explosion pretreatment of softwood. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 84–6:97–110
Behrendt CJ, Blanchette RA (1997) Biological processing of pine logs for pulp and paper production with phlebiopsis gigantea. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:1995–2000
Bertaud F, Sundberg A, Holmbom B (2002) Evaluation of acid methanolysis for analysis of wood hemicelluloses and pectins. Carbohydr Polym 48:319–324
Bertran MS, Dale BE (1985) Enzymatic hydrolysis and recrystallization behavior of initially amorphous cellulose. Biotechnol Bioeng 27:177–181
Besombes S, Mazeau K (2005) The cellulose/lignin assembly assessed by molecular modeling. Part 1: adsorption of a threo guaiacyl beta-O-4 dimer onto a Ibeta cellulose whisker. Plant Physiol Biochem 43:299–308
Biermann CJ (1996) Pulping fundamentals. In: Handbook of pulping and papermaking, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 55–100
Biganska O, Navard P (2003) Phase diagram of a cellulose solvent: N-methylmorpholine–N-oxide–water mixtures. Polymer 44:1035–1039
Billa E, Monties B (1991) Occurrence of silicon associated with lignin-polysaccharide complexes isolated from gramineae (wheat straw) cell walls. Food Hydrocolloids 5:189–195
Binder JB, Raines RT (2010) Fermentable sugars by chemical hydrolysis of biomass. PNAS 107:4516–4521
Binod P, Sindhu R, Singhania RR, Vikram S, Devi L, Nagalakshmi S, Kurien N, Sukumaran RK et al (2010) Bioethanol production from rice straw: an overview. Bioresour Technol 101:4767–4774
Biswas D, Misbahuddin M, Roy U, Francis RC, Bose SK (2011) Effect of additives on fiber yield improvement for kraft pulping of kadam (Anthocephalus chinensis). Bioresour Technol 102:1284–1288
Bose S, Barnes CA, Petrich JW (2012) Enhanced stability and activity of cellulase in an ionic liquid and the effect of pretreatment on cellulose hydrolysis. Biotechnol Bioeng 109:434–443
Brownell HH, Yu EK, Saddler JN (1986) Steam-explosion pretreatment of wood: effect of chip size, acid, moisture content and pressure drop. Biotechnol Bioeng 28:792–801
Cameron MG, Fahey GC Jr, Clark JH, Merchen NR, Berger LL (1990) Effects of feeding alkaline hydrogen peroxide-treated wheat straw-based diets on digestion and production by dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 73:3544–3554
Cameron MG, Fahey GC Jr, Clark JH, Merchen NR, Berger LL (1991) Effects of feeding alkaline hydrogen peroxide-treated wheat straw-based diets on intake, digestion, ruminal fermentation, and production responses by mid-lactation dairy cows. J Anim Sci 69:1775–1787
Canilha L, Santos VT, Rocha GJ, Almeida e Silva JB, Giulietti M, Silva SS, Felipe MG, Ferraz A et al (2011) A study on the pretreatment of a sugarcane bagasse sample with dilute sulfuric acid. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 38:1467–1475
Castro FB, Hotten PM, Orskov ER (1993) Effects of dilute-acid hydrolysis treatment on the physico-chemical features and bio-utilization of wheat straw. Anim Feed Sci Technol 42:55–67
Chandra R, Ewanick S, Hsieh C, Saddler JN (2008) The characterization of pretreated lignocellulosic substrates prior to enzymatic hydrolysis, part 1: a modified Simons’ staining technique. Biotechnol Prog 24:1178–1185
Chandra R, Ewanick S, Chung P, Au-Yeung K, Rio L, Mabee W, Saddler J (2009) Comparison of methods to assess the enzyme accessibility and hydrolysis of pretreated lignocellulosic substrates. Biotechnol Lett 31:1217–1222
Chang VS, Holtzapple MT (2000) Fundamental factors affecting biomass enzymatic reactivity. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 84–86:5–37
Chang M, Chou T, Tsao G (1981) Structure, pretreatment and hydrolysis of cellulose. In: Bioenergy 15–42
Chen C, Boldor D, Aita G, Walker M (2012) Ethanol production from sorghum by a microwave-assisted dilute ammonia pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 110:190–197
Cheng KK, Zhang JA, Ping WX, Ge JP, Zhou YJ, Ling HZ, Xu JM (2008) Sugarcane bagasse mild alkaline/oxidative pretreatment for ethanol production by alkaline recycle process. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 151:43–50
Chesson A (1988) Lignin-polysaccharide complexes of the plant cell wall and their effect on microbial degradation in the rumen. Anim Feed Sci Technol 21:219–228
Chundawat SP, Beckham GT, Himmel ME, Dale BE (2011a) Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 2:121–145
Chundawat SP, Bellesia G, Uppugundla N, da Costa Sousa L, Gao D, Cheh AM, Agarwal UP, Bianchetti CM et al (2011b) Restructuring the crystalline cellulose hydrogen bond network enhances its depolymerization rate. J Am Chem Soc 133:11163–11174
Ciolacu D, Ciolacu F, Popa VI (2011) Amorphous cellulose—structure and characterization cellulose chem. Technol 45:13–21
Cochard H, Tyree MT (1990) Xylem dysfunction in quercus: vessel sizes, tyloses, cavitation and seasonal changes in embolism. Tree Physiol 6:393–407
Cuissinat C, Navard P (2006) Swelling and dissolution of cellulose. Part 1: free floating cotton and wood fibres in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide-water mixtures. Macromol Symp 244:1–18
Curreli N, Fadda MB, Rescigno A, Rinaldi AC, Soddu G, Sollai F, Vaccargiu S, Sanjust E et al (1997) Mild alkaline/oxidative pretreatment of wheat straw. Process Biochem 32:665–670
Czirnich W, Patt R (1976) Untersuchungen uber die stabilisierung von hemicellulosen beim sulfitverfahren auf magnesium-basis. Holzforschung 30:124–132
da Costa Sousa L, Chundawat SP, Balan V, Dale BE (2009) ‘Cradle-to-grave’ assessment of existing lignocellulose pretreatment technologies. Curr Opin Biotechnol 20:339–347
Dadi AP, Varanasi S, Schall CA (2006) Enhancement of cellulose saccharification kinetics using an ionic liquid pretreatment step. Biotechnol Bioeng 95:904–910
Deschamps FC, Ramos LP, Fontana JD (1996) Pretreatment of sugar cane bagasse for enhanced ruminal digestion. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 57–58:171–182
Deshpande MD, Scheicher RH, Ahuja R, Pandey R (2008) Binding strength of sodium ions in cellulose for different water contents. J Phys Chem B 112:8985–8989
Ding SY, Himmel ME (2006) The maize primary cell wall microfibril: a new model derived from direct visualization. J Agric Food Chem 54:597–606
Dogan H, Hilmioglu ND (2009) Dissolution of cellulose with NMMO by microwave heating. Carbohydr Polym 75:90–94
Donohoe BS, Decker SR, Tucker MP, Himmel ME, Vinzant TB (2008) Visualizing lignin coalescence and migration through maize cell walls following thermochemical pretreatment. Biotechnol Bioeng 101:913–925
Elbeshbishy E, Aldin S, Hafez H, Nakhla G, Ray M (2011) Impact of ultrasonication of hog manure on anaerobic digestability. Ultrason Sonochem 18:164–171
Esteghlalian AR, Bilodeau M, Mansfield SD, Saddler JN (2001) Do enzymatic hydrolyzability and Simons’ stain reflect the changes in the accessibility of lignocellulosic substrates to cellulase enzymes? Biotechnol Prog 17:1049–1054
Ewanick SM, Bura R, Saddler JN (2007) Acid-catalyzed steam pretreatment of lodgepole pine and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation to ethanol. Biotechnol Bioeng 98:737–746
Fan LT, Lee Y, Beardmore DH (1980) Mechanism of the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: effects of major structural features of cellulose on enzymatic hydrolysis. Biotechnol Bioeng 22:177–199
Fan L, Lee Y, Gharpuray M (1982) The nature of lignocellulosics and their pretreatments for enzymatic hydrolysis. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 23:158–183
Fengel D, Wegener G (1979) Hydrolysis of polysaccharides with trifluoroacetic acid and its application to rapid wood and pulp analysis. In: Jurasek L, Brown RD (eds) Hydrolysis of cellulose: mechanisms of enzymatic and acid catalysis, vol 181. American Chemical Society, pp 145–158
Fengel D, Wegener G (1984) Wood: chemistry, ultrastructure reactions. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin
Fengel D, Wegener G, Heizmann A, Przyklenk M (1978) Analysis of wood and cellulose by total hydrolysis with trifluoroacetic acid. Cellul Chem Technol 12:31–37
Fernandez-Cegri V, de la Rubia MA, Raposo F, Borja R (2012) Impact of ultrasonic pretreatment under different operational conditions on the mesophilic anaerobic digestion of sunflower oil cake in batch mode. Ultrason Sonochem 19:1003–1010
Festucci-Buselli RA, Otoni WC, Joshi CP (2007) Structure, organization, and functions of cellulose synthase complexes in higher plants. Braz J Plant Physiol 19:1–13
Fink HP, Weigel P, Purz HJ, Ganster J (2001) Structure formation of regenerated cellulose materials from NMMO-solutions. Adv Polym Sci 26:1473–1524
Forsskahl I, Popoff T, Theander O (1976) Reactions of -xylose and -glucose in alkaline, aqueous solutions. Carbohydr Res 48:13–21
Foston M, Ragauskas AJ (2010) Changes in lignocellulosic supramolecular and ultrastructure during dilute acid pretreatment of populus and switchgrass. Biomass Bioenergy 34:1885–1895
Fry SC (1989) The structure and functions of xyloglucan. J Exp Bot 40:1–11
Fu D, Mazza G (2011) Aqueous ionic liquid pretreatment of straw. Bioresour Technol 102:7008–7011
Galbe M, Zacchi G (2007) Pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials for efficient bioethanol production. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 108:41–65
Geng X, Henderson WA (2012) Pretreatment of corn stover by combining ionic liquid dissolution with alkali extraction. Biotechnol Bioeng 109:84–91
Girio FM, Fonseca C, Carvalheiro F, Duarte LC, Marques S, Bogel-Lukasik R (2010) Hemicelluloses for fuel ethanol: a review. Bioresour Technol 101:4775–4800
Glaus MA, Van Loon LR (2008) Degradation of cellulose under alkaline conditions: new insights from a 12 years degradation study. Environ Sci Technol 42:2906–2911
Grethelin HE (1985) The effect of pore size distribution on the rate of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic substrates. Nat Biotechnol 3:155–160
Grohmann K, Torget R, Himmel M (1986a) Optimization of dilute acid pretreatment of biomass. Biotechnol Bioeng SympWiley 15:59–80
Grohmann K, Torget R, Himmel M (1986b) Dilute acid pretreatment research. Biochemical conversion program review meeting, Solar Energy Research Inst., Golden, CO, pp 121–138
Grohmann K, Mitchell D, Himmel M, Dale B, Schroeder H (1989) The role of ester groups in resistance of plant cell wall polysaccharides to enzymatic hydrolysis. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 20–21:45–61
Gümüskaya E, Usta M (2006) Dependence of chemical and crystalline structure of alkali sulfite pulp on cooking temperature and time. Carbohydr Polym 65:461–468
Ha SH, Mai NL, An G, Koo YM (2011) Microwave-assisted pretreatment of cellulose in ionic liquid for accelerated enzymatic hydrolysis. Bioresour Technol 102:1214–1219
Hallac BB, Ragauskas AJ (2011) Analyzing cellulose degree of polymerization and its relevancy to cellulosic ethanol. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefin 5:215–225
Hallac BB, Ray M, Murphy RJ, Ragauskas AJ (2010) Correlation between anatomical characteristics of ethanol organosolv pretreated Buddleja davidii and its enzymatic conversion to glucose. Biotechnol Bioeng 107:795–801
Harris J, Baker A, Zerbe J (1984) Two-stage, dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis of hardwood for ethanol production. Energy Biomass Wastes 8:1151–1170
Harun MY, Dayang Radiah AB, Zainal Abidin Z, Yunus R (2011) Effect of physical pretreatment on dilute acid hydrolysis of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Bioresour Technol 102:5193–5199
Haverty D, Dussan K, Piterina AV, Leahy JJ, Hayes MH (2012) Autothermal, single-stage, performic acid pretreatment of miscanthus x giganteus for the rapid fractionation of its biomass components into a lignin/hemicellulose-rich liquor and a cellulase-digestible pulp. Bioresour Technol 109:173–177
Hayashi J, Sufoka A, Ohkita J, Watanabe S (1975) The confirmation of existences of cellulose IIII, IIIII, IVI, and IVII by the X-ray method. J Polym Sci: Polym Lett ed 13:23–27
He X, Miao Y, Jiang X, Xu Z, Ouyang P (2010) Enhancing the enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover by an integrated wet-milling and alkali pretreatment. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 160:2449–2457
Heiss-Blanquet S, Zheng D, Lopes Ferreira N, Lapierre C, Baumberger S (2011) Effect of pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of wheat straw on cell wall composition, hydrophobicity and cellulase adsorption. Bioresour Technol 102:5938–5946
Henderson R (1970) Structure of crystalline alpha-chymotrypsin. IV. The structure of indoleacryloyl-alpha-chyotrypsin and its relevance to the hydrolytic mechanism of the enzyme. J Mol Biol 54:341–354
Hendriks AT, Zeeman G (2009) Pretreatments to enhance the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresour Technol 100:10–18
Hepworth DG, Vincent JF, Stringer G, Jeronimidis G (2002) Variations in the morphology of wood structure can explain why hardwood species of similar density have very different resistances to impact and compressive loading. Philos Trans Math Phys Eng Sci 360:255–272
Higgins FJ, Ho GE (1982) Hydrolysis of cellulose using HCl: a comparison between liquid phase and gaseous phase processes. Agric Waste 4:97–116
Hong J, Ye X, Zhang YH (2007) Quantitative determination of cellulose accessibility to cellulase based on adsorption of a nonhydrolytic fusion protein containing CBM and GFP with its applications. Langmuir 23:12535–12540
Hong F, Guo X, Zhang S, Han SF, Yang G, Jonsson LJ (2012) Bacterial cellulose production from cotton-based waste textiles: enzymatic saccharification enhanced by ionic liquid pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 104:503–508
Isogai A, Atalla RH (1991) Amorphous celluloses stable in aqueous media: regeneration from SO2–amine solvent systems. J Polym Sci, Part A: Polym Chem 29:113–119
Jacobsen SE, Wyman CE (2000) Cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis models for application to current and novel pretreatment processes. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 84–86:81–96
Jeihanipour A (2011) Waste textile bioprocessing to ethanol and biogas. Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Ph.D thesis
Jeihanipour A, Karimi K, Niklasson C, Taherzadeh MJ (2010a) A novel process for ethanol or biogas production from cellulose in blended-fibers waste textiles. Waste Manag 30:2504–2509
Jeihanipour A, Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2010b) Enhancement of ethanol and biogas production from high-crystalline cellulose by different modes of NMO pretreatment. Biotechnol Bioeng 105:469–476
Jiang ZH, Fei BH, Yang Z (2007) Effects of spectral pretreatment on the prediction of crystallinity of wood cellulose using near infrared spectroscopy. Guang Pu Xue Yu Guang Pu Fen Xi 27:435–438
Karlsson J, Medve J, Tjerneld F (1999) Hydrolysis of steam-pretreated lignocellulose: synergism and adsorption for cellobiohydrolase I and endoglucanase II of Trichoderma reesei. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 82:243–258
Keshwani DR, Cheng JJ (2010) Modeling changes in biomass composition during microwave-based alkali pretreatment of switchgrass. Biotechnol Bioeng 105:88–97
Keys JE Jr, DeBarthe JV (1974) Cellulose and hemicellulose digestibility in the stomach, small intestine and large intestine of swine. J Anim Sci 39:53–56
Keys JE Jr, Van Soest PJ, Young EP (1969) Comparative study of the digestibility of forage cellulose and hemicellulose in ruminants and nonruminants. J Anim Sci 29:11–15
Khodaverdi M, Jeihanipour A, Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2012) Kinetic modeling of rapid enzymatic hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose after pretreatment by NMMO. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 39:429–438
Kim S, Holtzapple MT (2005) Lime pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover. Bioresour Technol 96:1994–2006
Kim S, Holtzapple MT (2006) Effect of structural features on enzyme digestibility of corn stover. Bioresour Technol 97:583–591
Kim BS, Lee YY (2002) Diffusion of sulfuric acid within lignocellulosic biomass particles and its impact on dilut-acid pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 83:165–171
Kim TH, Lee YY (2006) Fractionation of corn stover by hot-water and aqueous ammonia treatment. Bioresour Technol 97:224–232
Kim BS, Um BH, Park SC (2001) Effect of pretreatment reagent and hydrogen peroxide on enzymatic hydrolysis of oak in percolation process. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 91–93:81–94
Kim TH, Kim JS, Sunwoo C, Lee YY (2003) Pretreatment of corn stover by aqueous ammonia. Bioresour Technol 90:39–47
Kim JS, Sandquist D, Sundberg B, Daniel G (2011) Spatial and temporal variability of xylan distribution in differentiating secondary xylem of hybrid aspen. Planta. doi:10.1007/s00425-011-1576-8
Kim S, Park JM, Seo JW, Kim CH (2012) Sequential acid-/alkali-pretreatment of empty palm fruit bunch fiber. Bioresour Technol 109:229–233
Knappert D, Grethlein H, Converse A (1980) Partial acid hydrolysis of cellulosic materials as a pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis. Biotechnol Bioeng 22:1449–1463
Ko JK, Bak JS, Jung MW, Lee HJ, Choi IG, Kim TH, Kim KH (2009) Ethanol production from rice straw using optimized aqueous-ammonia soaking pretreatment and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation processes. Bioresour Technol 100:4374–4380
Kobayashi T, Sakai Y (1956) Hydrolysis rate of pentosan of hardwood in dilute sulfuric acid. Bull Agr Chem Soc Jpn 20:1–7
Kuhad RC, Gupta R, Khasa YP, Singh A (2010) Bioethanol production from lantanacamara (red sage): pretreatment, saccharification and fermentation. Bioresour Technol 101:8348–8354
Kumar R, Wyman CE (2008) An improved method to directly estimate cellulase adsorption on biomass solids. Enzyme Microb Technol 42:426–433
Kumar R, Wyman CE (2009a) Cellulase adsorption and relationship to features of corn stover solids produced by leading pretreatments. Biotechnol Bioeng 103:252–267
Kumar R, Wyman CE (2009b) Access of cellulase to cellulose and lignin for poplar solids produced by leading pretreatment technologies. Biotechnol Prog 25:807–819
Kumar R, Mago G, Balan V, Wyman CE (2009) Physical and chemical characterizations of corn stover and poplar solids resulting from leading pretreatment technologies. Bioresour Technol 100:3948–3962
Kuo C-H, Lee C-K (2009a) Enhancement of enzymatic saccharification of cellulose by cellulose dissolution pretreatments. Carbohydr Polym 77:41–46
Kuo C-H, Lee C-K (2009b) Enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse by N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 100:866–871
Lamed R, Kenig R, Setter E, Bayer EA (1985) Major characteristics of the cellulolytic system of Clostridium thermocellum coincide with those of the purified cellulosome. Enzyme Microb Technol 7:37–41
Lee J (1997) Biological conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol. J Biotechnol 56:1–24
Lee JH, Brown RM Jr, Kuga S, Shoda S, Kobayashi S (1994) Assembly of synthetic cellulose I. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:7425–7429
Lee SH, Doherty TV, Linhardt RJ, Dordick JS (2009) Ionic liquid-mediated selective extraction of lignin from wood leading to enhanced enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. Biotechnol Bioeng 102:1368–1376
Lennartsson PR, Niklasson C, Taherzadeh MJ (2011) A pilot study on lignocelluloses to ethanol and fish feed using NMMO pretreatment and cultivation with zygomycetes in an air-lift reactor. Bioresour Technol 102:4425–4432
Lewis NG, Yamamoto E (1990) Lignin: occurrence, biogenesis and biodegradation. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 41:455–496
Li C, Cheng G, Balan V, Kent MS, Ong M, Chundawat SP, Sousa L, Melnichenko YB, Dale BE, Simmons BA, Singh S (2011) Influence of physico-chemical changes on enzymatic digestibility of ionic liquid and AFEX pretreated corn stover. Bioresour Technol 102:6928–6936
Li C, Zhao ZK (2007) Efficient acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose in ionic liquid. Adv Synth Catal 349:1847–1850
Li C, Wang Q, Zhao ZK (2008) Acid in ionic liquid: an efficient system for hydrolysis of lignocellulose. Green Chem 10:177–182
Li Q, He YC, Xian M, Jun G, Xu X, Yang JM, Li LZ (2009) Improving enzymatic hydrolysis of wheat straw using ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium diethyl phosphate pretreatment. Bioresour Technol 100:3570–3575
Li C, Knierim B, Manisseri C, Arora R, Scheller HV, Auer M, Vogel KP, Simmons BA et al (2010a) Comparison of dilute acid and ionic liquid pretreatment of switchgrass: biomass recalcitrance, delignification and enzymatic saccharification. Bioresour Technol 101:4900–4906
Li Q, Jiang X, He Y, Li L, Xian M, Yang J (2010b) Evaluation of the biocompatible ionic liquid 1-methyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethylphosphite pretreatment of corn cob for improved saccharification. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:117–126
Li B, Asikkala J, Filpponen I, Argyropoulos DS (2010c) Factors affecting wood dissolution and regeneration of ionic liquids. Ind Eng Chem Res 49:2477–2484
Liebert T (2010) Cellulose solvents-remarkable history, bright future, cellulose solvents: for analysis, shaping and chemical modification. American Chemical Society, Washington
Lin KW, Ladisch MR, Voloch M, Patterson JA, Noller CH (1985) Effect of pretreatments and fermentation on pore size in cellulosic materials. Biotechnol Bioeng 27:1427–1433
Lis MJ, Carrillo F, Colom X, Martinez D, Nogues F (2000) Acid hydrolysis of straw before its enzymic treatment. Determination of a kinetic model. Ing Quim (Madrid) 32:181–186
Liu L, Chen H (2006) Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose materials treated with ionic liquid [BMIM] Cl. Chin Sci Bull 51:2432–2436
Liu H, Sale KL, Holmes BM, Simmons BA, Singh S (2010) Understanding the interactions of cellulose with ionic liquids: a molecular dynamics study. J Phys Chem B 114:4293–4301
Liu C-Z, Wang F, Stiles AR, Guo C (2012) Ionic liquids for biofuel production: opportunities and challenges. Appl Energy 92:406–414
Lucas M, Macdonald BA, Wagner GL, Joyce SA, Rector KD (2010) Ionic liquid pretreatment of poplar wood at room temperature: swelling and incorporation of nanoparticles. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2:2198–2205
Lynam JG, Toufiq Reza M, Vasquez VR, Coronella CJ (2012) Pretreatment of rice hulls by ionic liquid dissolution. Bioresour Technol. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.004
Lynd LR, Weimer PJ, van Zyl WH, Pretorius IS (2002) Microbial cellulose utilization: fundamentals and biotechnology. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 66:506–577
Mäki-Arvela P, Anugwom I, Virtanen P, Sjöholm R, Mikkola JP (2010) Dissolution of lignocellulosic materials and its constituents using ionic liquids-a review. Ind Crop Prod 32:175–201
Mansour OY, Saady M, Mottaleb FA (1972) On structure of cellulose, Part I, study of changes due to alkali treatment by infrared spectroscopy. Indian Pulp Pap 26:72–84
Martin C, Rocha G, Perez M, Lopez Y, Hernandez E, Plasencia Y (2008) Acid prehydrolysis, alkaline delignification and enzymatic hydrolysis of rice hulls. Cellul Chem Technol 41:129–135
McCarter SL, Adney WS, Vinzant TB, Jennings E, Eddy FP, Decker SR, Baker JO, Sakon J et al (2002) Exploration of cellulose surface-binding properties of acidothermus cellulolyticus Cel5A by site-specific mutagenesis. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 98–100:273–287
McMillan JD (1992) Process for pretreating lignocellulosic biomass: a review. National Renewable Energy Lab., Golden, COReport No. NREL/TP 4214978
McMillan JD (1994) Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. In: Himmel ME, Baker JO, Overend RP (eds) ACS symposium series (enzymatic conversion of biomass for fuels production), vol 566, pp 292–324
Meister G, Wechsler M (1998) Biodegradation of N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. Biodegrad 9:91–102
Millett MA, Baker AJ, Satter LD (1976) Physical and chemical pretreatments for enhancing cellulose saccharification. Biotechnol Bioeng Symp 125–153
Mirahmadi K, Kabir MM, Jeihanipour J, Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2010) Alkaline pretreatment of spruce and birch to improve bioethanol and biogas production. BioResources 5:928–938
Mittal A, Katahira R, Himmel ME, Johnson DK (2011) Effects of alkaline or liquid-ammonia treatment on crystalline cellulose: changes in crystalline structure and effects on enzymatic digestibility. Biotechnol Biofuels 4:41
Morag E, Bayer EA, Lamed R (1990) Relationship of cellulosomal and noncellulosomal xylanases of Clostridium thermocellum to cellulose-degrading enzymes. J Bacteriol 172:6098–6105
Mora-Pale M, Meli L, Doherty TV, Linhardt RJ, Dordick JS (2011) Room temperature ionic liquids as emerging solvents for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Biotechnol Bioeng 108:1229–1245
Morjanoff PJ, Gray PP (1987) Optimization of steam explosion as a method for increasing susceptibility of sugarcane bagasse to enzymatic saccharification. Biotechnol Bioeng 29:733–741
Mosier N, Wyman C, Dale B, Elander R, Lee YY, Holtzapple M, Ladisch M (2005) Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresour Technol 96:673–686
Moulthrop JS, Swatloski RP, Moyna G, Rogers RD (2005) High-resolution 13C NMR studies of cellulose and cellulose oligomers in ionic liquid solutions. Chem Commun (Camb), pp 1557–1559
Mugnolo AMJ, Macchi EM, Marx-Flglnl M (1988) Dilute acid-hydrolized cotton cellulose: an electron diffraction study. Polym Bull 19:187–192
Nguyen QA, Tucker MP, Keller FA, Eddy FP (2000) Two-stage dilute-acid pretreatment of softwoods. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 84–86:561–576
Nguyen TA, Kim KR, Han SJ, Cho HY, Kim JW, Park SM, Park JC, Sim SJ (2010) Pretreatment of rice straw with ammonia and ionic liquid for lignocellulose conversion to fermentable sugars. Bioresour Technol 101:7432–7438
Ninomiya K, Kamide K, Takahashi K, Shimizu N (2012) Enhanced enzymatic saccharification of kenaf powder after ultrasonic pretreatment in ionic liquids at room temperature. Bioresour Technol 103:259–265
Norman AG (1934) The biological decomposition of plant materials: part IX. The anaerobic decopmsition of hemicelluloses. Ann Appl Biol 21:454–475
Ogiwara Y, Arai K (1968) Swelling degree of cellulose materials and hydrolysis rate with cellulase. Text Res J 38:885–891
Pan X, Xie D, Gilkes N, Gregg DJ, Saddler JN (2005) Strategies to enhance the enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated softwood with high residual lignin content. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 121–124:1069–1079
Pan X, Gilkes N, Kadla J, Pye K, Saka S, Gregg D, Ehara K, Xie D et al (2006a) Bioconversion of hybrid poplar to ethanol and co-products using an organosolv fractionation process: optimization of process yields. Biotechnol Bioeng 94:851–861
Pan X, Gilkes N, Saddler J (2006b) Effect of acetyl groups on enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic substrates. Holzforschung 60:398–401
Pan X, Kadla JF, Ehara K, Gilkes N, Saddler JN (2006c) Organosolv ethanol lignin from hybrid poplar as a radical scavenger: relationship between lignin structure, extraction conditions, and antioxidant activity. J Agric Food Chem 54:5806–5813
Pan X, Fan Z, Chen W, Ding Y, Luo H, Bao X (2007a) Enhanced ethanol production inside carbon-nanotube reactors containing catalytic particles. Nat Mater 6:507–511
Pan X, Xie D, Kang KY, Yoon SL, Saddler JN (2007b) Effect of organosolv ethanol pretreatment variables on physical characteristics of hybrid poplar substrates. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 137–140:367–377
Pang C, Xie T, Lin L, Zhuang J, Liu Y, Shi J, Yang Q (2012) Changes of the surface structure of corn stalk in the cooking process with active oxygen and MgO-based solid alkali as a pretreatment of its biomass conversion. Bioresour Technol 103:432–439
Patt R, Kordsachia O, Süttinger R (2011) Pulp. In: Ullmann’s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
Pei H, Liu L, Zhang X, Sun J (2012) Flow-through pretreatment with strongly acidic electrolyzed water for hemicellulose removal and enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover. Bioresour Technol 110:292–296
Peng F, Peng P, Xu F, Sun RC (2012) Fractional purification and bioconversion of hemicelluloses. Biotechnol Adv. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.01.018
Pérez S, Samain D (2010) Structure and engineering of celluloses. In: Derek H (ed) Advances in carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry, vol 64. Academic Press, New York, pp 25–116
Pham TT, Brar SK, Tyagi RD, Surampalli RY (2009) Ultrasonication of wastewater sludge-consequences on biodegradability and flowability. J Hazard Mater 163:891–898
Pingali SV, Urban VS, Heller WT, McGaughey J, O’Neill H, Foston M, Myles DA, Ragauskas A et al (2010) Breakdown of cell wall nanostructure in dilute acid pretreated biomass. Biomacromolecules 11:2329–2335
Poornejad N, Karimi K, Behzad T (2012) Improvement of saccharification and ethanol production from rice straw by NMMO and [BMIM][OAc] pretreatments. Ind Crop Prod
Procter AR, Wiekenkamp RH (1969) The stabilization of cellulose to alkaline degradation by novel end unit modifications. J Polym Sci, Part C: Polym Symp 28:1–13
Pu YQ, Jiang N, Ragauskas AJJ (2007) Ionic liquid as a green solvent for lignin. Wood Chem Technol 27:23–33
Puri VP (1984) Effect of crystallinity and degree of polymerization of cellulose on enzymatic saccharification. Biotechnol Bioeng 26:1219–1222
Puri VP, Pearce GR (1986) Alkali-explosion pretreatment of straw and bagasse for enzymic hydrolysis. Biotechnol Bioeng 28:480–485
Qi B, Chen X, Wan Y (2010) Pretreatment of wheat straw by nonionic surfactant-assisted dilute acid for enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis and ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 101:4875–4883
Qing Q, Yang B, Wyman CE (2010) Impact of surfactants on pretreatment of corn stover. Bioresour Technol 101:5941–5951
Ramos LP, Breuil C, Saddler JN (1992) Comparison of steam pretreatment of eucalyptus, aspen, and spruce wood chips and their enzymic hydrolysis. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 34–35:37–48
Remsing RC, Swatloski RP, Rogers RD, Moyna G (2006) Mechanism of cellulose dissolution in the ionic liquid 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride: a 13C and 35/37Cl NMR relaxation study on model systems. Chem Commun 1271–1273
Rocha GJ, Martin C, da Silva VF, Gomez EO, Goncalves AR (2012) Mass balance of pilot-scale pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse by steam explosion followed by alkaline delignification. Bioresour Technol 111:447–452
Rodrigues TH, Rocha MV, de Macedo GR, Goncalves LR (2011) Ethanol production from cashew apple bagasse: improvement of enzymatic hydrolysis by microwave-assisted alkali pretreatment. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 164:929–943
Rollin JA, Zhu Z, Sathitsuksanoh N, Zhang YH (2011) Increasing cellulose accessibility is more important than removing lignin: a comparison of cellulose solvent-based lignocellulose fractionation and soaking in aqueous ammonia. Biotechnol Bioeng 108:22–30
Rosenau T, Potthast A, Sixta H, Kosma P (2001) The chemistry of side reactions and byproduct formation in the system NMMO/cellulose (lyocell process). Prog Polym Sci 26:1763–1837
Saeman JF (1945) Kinetics of wood saccharification: Hydrolysis of cellulose and decomposition of sugars in dilute acid at high temperature. Ind Eng Chem 37:43–52
Saeman JF (1949) Kinetics of wood hydrolysis and the decomposition of sugars in dilute acids at high temperatures. Holzforschung 4:1–14
Saha BC, Iten LB, Cotta MA, Wu YV (2005) Dilute acid pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and fermentation of rice hulls to ethanol. Biotechnol Prog 21:816–822
Sassner P, Martensson CG, Galbe M, Zacchi G (2008) Steam pretreatment of H2SO4-impregnated Salix for the production of bioethanol. Bioresour Technol 99:137–145
Shafiei M, Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2010) Pretreatment of spruce and oak by N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) for efficient conversion of their cellulose to ethanol. Bioresour Technol 101:4914–4918
Shafiei M, Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2011) Techno-economical study of ethanol and biogas from spruce wood by NMMO-pretreatment and rapid fermentation and digestion. Bioresour Technol 102:7879–7886
Shafiei M, Ziluoei H, Zamani A, Taherzadeh MJ, Karimi K (2012) Enhancement of ethanol production from spruce wood chips by ionic liquid pretreatment. Appl Energy
Shafizadeh F (1963) Acidic hydrolysis of glucosidic bonds. Tappi J 46:381–383
Shah MM, Song SK, Lee YY, Torget R (1991) Effect of pretreatment on simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of hardwood into acetone/butanol. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 28–29:99–109
Shen J, Wyman CE (2011) A novel mechanism and kinetic model to explain enhanced xylose yields from dilute sulfuric acid compared to hydrothermal pretreatment of corn stover. Bioresour Technol 102:9111–9120
Shill K, Padmanabhan S, Xin Q, Prausnitz JM, Clark DS, Blanch HW (2011) Ionic liquid pretreatment of cellulosic biomass: enzymatic hydrolysis and ionic liquid recycle. Biotechnol Bioeng 108:511–520
Shimizu K (1988) Steam-explosion treatment of wood. Kami Pa Gikyoshi 42:1114–1130
Sievers C, Valenzuela-Olarte MB, Marzialetti T, Musin I, Agrawal PK, Jones CW (2009) Ionic-liquid-phase hydrolysis of pine wood. Ind Eng Chem Res 48:1277–1286
Silva ASA, Lee SH, Endo T, Bon EP (2011) Major improvement in the rate and yield of enzymatic saccharification of sugarcane bagasse via pretreatment with the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([Emim][Ac]). Bioresour Technol 102:10505–10509
Singh A, Tuteja S, Singh N, Bishnoi NR (2011) Enhanced saccharification of rice straw and hull by microwave-alkali pretreatment and lignocellulolytic enzyme production. Bioresour Technol 102:1773–1782
Sjostrom E (1977) The behavior of wood polysaccharides during alkaline pulping process. Tappi J 60:151–154
Soderstrom J, Pilcher L, Galbe M, Zacchi G (2003) Combined use of H2SO4 and SO2 impregnation for steam pretreatment of spruce in ethanol production. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 105–108:127–140
Stone J E, Scallan A M, Donefer E, Ahlgren E (1969) Digestibility as a simple function of a molecule of similar size to a cellulase enzyme. In: Hajny GJ, Reese ET (eds) Cellulases and their applications, vol 95, American Chemical Society, pp 219–241
Sun Y, Cheng J (2002) Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review. Bioresour Technol 83:1–11
Sun Y, Cheng JJ (2005) Dilute acid pretreatment of rye straw and bermudagrass for ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 96:1599–1606
Swatloski RP, Visser AE, Reichert WM, Broker GA, Farina LM, Holbrey JD, Rogers RD (2001) Solvation of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate in aqueous ethanol-a green solution for dissolving ‘hydrophobic’ ionic liquids. Chem Commun (Camb) 2070–2071
Taherzadeh MJ, Karimi K (2007) Acid-based hydrolysis processes for ethanol from lignocellulosic materials: a review. BioResources 2:472–499
Taherzadeh MJ, Karimi K (2008) Pretreatment of lignocellulosic wastes to improve ethanol and biogas production: a review. Int J Mol Sci 9:1621–1651
Takai M, Colvin R (1978) Mechanism of transition between cellulose I and cellulose II during mercerization. J Polym Sci: Polym Chem Ed 16:1335–1342
Tao F, Song H, Chou L (2010) Hydrolysis of cellulose by using catalytic amounts of FeCl2 in ionic liquids. Chem Sus Chem 3:1298–1303
Tarkow H, Feist W (1969) A mechanism for improving the digestibility of lignocellulosic materials with dilute alkali and liquid ammonia. Adv Chem Ser 95:197–218
Teghammar A, Yngvesson J, Lundin M, Taherzadeh MJ, Horvath IS (2010) Pretreatment of paper tube residuals for improved biogas production. Bioresour Technol 101:1206–1212
Teghammar A, Karimi K, Sárvári Horváth I, Taherzadeh MJ (2012) Enhanced biogas production from rice straw, triticale straw and softwood spruce by NMMO pretreatment. Biomass Bioenergy 36:116–120
Teixeira LC, Linden JC, Schroeder HA (2000) Simultaneous saccharification and cofermentation of peracetic acid-pretreated biomass. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 84–86:111–127
Teleman A, Harjunpaa V, Tenkanen M, Buchert J, Hausalo T, Drakenberg T, Vuorinen T (1995) Characterisation of 4-deoxy-beta-L-threo-hex-4-enopyranosyluronic acid attached to xylan in pine kraft pulp and pulping liquor by 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. Carbohydr Res 272:55–71
Teleman A, Tenkanen M, Jacobs A, Dahlman O (2002) Characterization of O-acetyl-(4-O-methylglucurono)xylan isolated from birch and beech. Carbohydr Res 337:373–377
Titchener AL, Guha BK (1981) Acid hydrolysis of wood. Report—new zealand energy research and development committee, vol 56, p 63
Torget R, Himmel ME, Grohmann K (1991) Dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment of hardwood bark. Bioresour Technol 35:239–246
Tosun A (1995) Dilute acid hydrolysis of sunflower residue (cellulosic wastes) prior to enzymatic hydrolysis. 8th international symposium on environmental pollution and its impact on life in the mediterranean region, Rhodes, Greece, pp 296–301
Uju Y, Nakamoto A, Goto M, Tokuhara W, Noritake Y, Katahira S, Ishida N, Nakashima K, Ogino C, Kamiya N (2012) Short time ionic liquids pretreatment on lignocellulosic biomass to enhance enzymatic saccharification. Bioresour Technol 103:446–452
Um BH, Karim M, Henk L (2003) Effect of sulfuric and phosphoric acid pretreatments on enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 105–108:115–125
Vazana Y, Morais S, Barak Y, Lamed R, Bayer EA (2010) Interplay between Clostridium thermocellum family 48 and family 9 cellulases in cellulosomal versus noncellulosomal states. Appl Environ Microbiol 76:3236–3243
Wald S, Wilke CR, Blanch HW (1984) Kinetics of the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. Biotechnol Bioeng 26:221–230
Wang Y, Spratling BM, ZoBell DR, Wiedmeier RD, McAllister TA (2004) Effect of alkali pretreatment of wheat straw on the efficacy of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes. J Anim Sci 82:198–208
Wang K, Yang HY, Xu F, Sun RC (2011) Structural comparison and enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulosic preparation from Populus tomentosa Carr., by different cellulose-soluble solvent systems. Bioresour Technol 102:4524–4529
Wu L, Arakane M, Ike M, Wada M, Takai T, Gau M, Tokuyasu K (2011a) Low temperature alkali pretreatment for improving enzymatic digestibility of sweet sorghum bagasse for ethanol production. Bioresour Technol 102:4793–4799
Wu L, Li Y, Arakane M, Ike M, Wada M, Terajima Y, Ishikawa S, Tokuyasu K (2011b) Efficient conversion of sugarcane stalks into ethanol employing low temperature alkali pretreatment method. Bioresour Technol 102:11183–11188
Wyman CE (1996) Handbook on bioethanol: production and utilization. Taylor and Francis, Washington
Wyman CE, Dale BE, Elander RT, Holtzapple M, Ladisch MR, Lee YY (2005) Coordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technologies. Bioresour Technol 96:1959–1966
Xiang Q, Kim JS, Lee YY (2003) A comprehensive kinetic model for dilute-acid hydrolysis of cellulose. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 105–108:337–352
Xu F, Sun JX, Liu CF, Sun RC (2006) Comparative study of alkali- and acidic organic solvent-soluble hemicellulosic polysaccharides from sugarcane bagasse. Carbohydr Res 341:253–261
Yang B, Wyman CE (2004) Effect of xylan and lignin removal by batch and flow through pretreatment on the enzymatic digestibility of corn stover cellulose. Biotechnol Bioeng 86:88–95
Yang B, Wyman CE (2006) BSA treatment to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose in lignin containing substrates. Biotechnol Bioeng 94:611–617
Yang B, Wyman CE (2008) Pretreatment: the key to unlocking low-cost cellulosic ethanol. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 2:26–40
Yang B, Dai Z, Ding SY, Wyman C (2011) Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass. Biofuels 2:421–450
Yoneda Y, Krainz K, Liebner F, Potthast A, Rosenau T, Karakawa M, Nakatsubo F (2008) Furan endwise peeling of celluloses: mechanistic studies and application perspectives of a novel reaction. Eur J Org Chem 2008:475–484
Yu J, Zhang J, He J, Liu Z, Yu Z (2009) Combinations of mild physical or chemical pretreatment with biological pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis of rice hull. Bioresour Technol 100:903–908
Zavrel M, Bross D, Funke M, Buchs J, Spiess AC (2009) High-throughput screening for ionic liquids dissolving (ligno)-cellulose. Bioresour Technol 100:2580–2587
Zhang YH, Lynd LR (2005) Determination of the number-average degree of polymerization of cellodextrins and cellulose with application to enzymatic hydrolysis. Biomacromolecules 6:1510–1515
Zhang Y, Du H, Qian X, Chen EYX (2010) Ionic liquid—water mixtures: enhanced Kw for efficient cellulosic biomass conversion. Energy Fuel 24:2410–2417
Zhao X, Liu D (2011) Fractionating pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse for increasing the enzymatic digestibility of cellulose. Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao 27:384–392
Zhao H, Baker GA, Song Z, Olubajo O, Crittle T, Peters D (2008a) Designing enzyme-compatible ionic liquids that can dissolve carbohydrates. Green Chem 10:696–705
Zhao Y, Wang Y, Zhu JY, Ragauskas A, Deng Y (2008b) Enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of spruce by alkaline pretreatment at low temperature. Biotechnol Bioeng 99:13201328
Zhao H, Jones CL, Baker GA, Xia S, Olubajo O, Person VN (2009) Regenerating cellulose from ionic liquids for an accelerated enzymatic hydrolysis. J Biotechnol 139:47–54
Zhao H, Baker GA, Cowins JV (2010) Fast enzymatic saccharification of switchgrass after pretreatment with ionic liquids. Biotechnol Progress 26:127–133
Zheng Y, Pan Z, Zhang R (2009) Overview of biomass pretreatment for cellulosic ethanol production. Int J Agric Biol Eng 2:51–68
Zhu JY, Pan XJ (2010) Woody biomass pretreatment for cellulosic ethanol production: technology and energy consumption evaluation. Bioresour Technol 101:4992–5002
Zhu Y, Lee YY, Elander RT (2005) Optimization of dilute-acid pretreatment of corn stover using a high-solids percolation reactor. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 121–124:1045–1054
Zhu JY, Pan X, Zalesny RS Jr (2010) Pretreatment of woody biomass for biofuel production: energy efficiency, technologies, and recalcitrance. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:847–857
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Karimi, K., Shafiei, M., Kumar, R. (2013). Progress in Physical and Chemical Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass. In: Gupta, V., Tuohy, M. (eds) Biofuel Technologies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34519-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34519-7_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-34518-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-34519-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)