Abstract
Since the introduction of the STM in 1981 and the AFM in 1985, many variations of probe-based microscopies, referred to as SPMs, have been developed. While the pure imaging capabilities of SPM techniques initially dominated applications of these methods, the physics of probe–sample interactions and quantitative analyses of tribological, electronic, magnetic, biological, and chemical surfaces using SPMs have become of increasing interest in recent years. SPMs are often associated with nanoscale science and technology, since they allow investigation and manipulation of surfaces down to the atomic scale. As our understanding of the underlying interaction mechanisms has grown, SPMs have increasingly found application in many fields beyond basic research fields. In addition, various derivatives of all these methods have been developed for special applications, some of them intended for areas other than microscopy. This chapter presents an overview of STM and AFM and various probes (tips) used in these instruments, followed by details on AFM instrumentation and analyses.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, E. Weibel: Surface studies by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 57–61 (1982)
G. Binnig, C.F. Quate, Ch. Gerber: Atomic force microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 930–933 (1986)
G. Binnig, Ch. Gerber, E. Stoll, T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate: Atomic resolution with atomic force microscope, Europhys. Lett. 3, 1281–1286 (1987)
B. Bhushan: Handbook of Micro/Nanotribology, 2nd edn. (CRC, Boca Raton 1999)
C.M. Mate, G.M. McClelland, R. Erlandsson, S. Chiang: Atomic-scale friction of a tungsten tip on a graphite surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. 59, 1942–1945 (1987)
R. Erlandsson, G.M. McClelland, C.M. Mate, S. Chiang: Atomic force microscopy using optical interferometry, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 6, 266–270 (1988)
O. Marti, J. Colchero, J. Mlynek: Combined scanning force and friction microscopy of mica, Nanotechnology 1, 141–144 (1990)
G. Meyer, N.M. Amer: Simultaneous measurement of lateral and normal forces with an optical-beam-deflection atomic force microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 2089–2091 (1990)
B. Bhushan, J. Ruan: Atomic-scale friction measurements using friction force microscopy: Part II – Application to magnetic media, ASME J. Tribol. 116, 389–396 (1994)
B. Bhushan, V.N. Koinkar, J. Ruan: Microtribology of magnetic media, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part J: J. Eng. Tribol. 208, 17–29 (1994)
B. Bhushan, J.N. Israelachvili, U. Landman: Nanotribology: Friction, wear, and lubrication at the atomic scale, Nature 374, 607–616 (1995)
S. Fujisawa, M. Ohta, T. Konishi, Y. Sugawara, S. Morita: Difference between the forces measured by an optical lever deflection and by an optical interferometer in an atomic force microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65, 644–647 (1994)
S. Fujisawa, E. Kishi, Y. Sugawara, S. Morita: Fluctuation in 2-dimensional stick-slip phenomenon observed with 2-dimensional frictional force microscope, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 33, 3752–3755 (1994)
S. Grafstrom, J. Ackermann, T. Hagen, R. Neumann, O. Probst: Analysis of lateral force effects on the topography in scanning force microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 12, 1559–1564 (1994)
R.M. Overney, H. Takano, M. Fujihira, W. Paulus, H. Ringsdorf: Anisotropy in friction and molecular stick-slip motion, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 3546–3549 (1994)
R.J. Warmack, X.Y. Zheng, T. Thundat, D.P. Allison: Friction effects in the deflection of atomic force microscope cantilevers, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65, 394–399 (1994)
N.A. Burnham, D.D. Domiguez, R.L. Mowery, R.J. Colton: Probing the surface forces of monolayer films with an atomic force microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 64, 1931–1934 (1990)
N.A. Burham, R.J. Colton, H.M. Pollock: Interpretation issues in force microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 9, 2548–2556 (1991)
C.D. Frisbie, L.F. Rozsnyai, A. Noy, M.S. Wrighton, C.M. Lieber: Functional group imaging by chemical force microscopy, Science 265, 2071–2074 (1994)
V.N. Koinkar, B. Bhushan: Microtribological studies of unlubricated and lubricated surfaces using atomic force/friction force microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 14, 2378–2391 (1996)
V. Scherer, B. Bhushan, U. Rabe, W. Arnold: Local elasticity and lubrication measurements using atomic force and friction force microscopy at ultrasonic frequencies, IEEE Trans. Magn. 33, 4077–4079 (1997)
V. Scherer, W. Arnold, B. Bhushan: Lateral force microscopy using acoustic friction force microscopy, Surf. Interf. Anal. 27, 578–587 (1999)
B. Bhushan, S. Sundararajan: Micro/Nanoscale friction and wear mechanisms of thin films using atomic force and friction force microscopy, Acta Mater. 46, 3793–3804 (1998)
U. Krotil, T. Stifter, H. Waschipky, K. Weishaupt, S. Hild, O. Marti: Pulse force mode: A new method for the investigation of surface properties, Surf. Interf. Anal. 27, 336–340 (1999)
B. Bhushan, C. Dandavate: Thin-film friction and adhesion studies using atomic force microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 87, 1201–1210 (2000)
B. Bhushan: Micro/Nanotribology and its Applications (Kluwer, Dordrecht 1997)
B. Bhushan: Principles and Applications of Tribology (Wiley, New York 1999)
B. Bhushan: Modern Tribology Handbook Vol.1: Principles of Tribology (CRC, Boca Raton 2001)
B. Bhushan: Introduction to Tribology (Wiley, New York 2002)
M. Reinstaedtler, U. Rabe, V. Scherer, U. Hartmann, A. Goldade, B. Bhushan, W. Arnold: On the nanoscale measurement of friction using atomic force microscope cantilever torsional resonances, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2604–2606 (2003)
N.A. Burnham, R.J. Colton: Measuring the nanomechanical properties and surface forces of materials using an atomic force microscope, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 7, 2906–2913 (1989)
P. Maivald, H.J. Butt, S.A.C. Gould, C.B. Prater, B. Drake, J.A. Gurley, V.B. Elings, P.K. Hansma: Using force modulation to image surface elasticities with the atomic force microscope, Nanotechnology 2, 103–106 (1991)
B. Bhushan, A.V. Kulkarni, W. Bonin, J.T. Wyrobek: Nano/Picoindentation measurements using capacitive transducer in atomic force microscopy, Philos. Mag. A 74, 1117–1128 (1996)
B. Bhushan, V.N. Koinkar: Nanoindentation hardness measurements using atomic force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 5741–5746 (1994)
D. DeVecchio, B. Bhushan: Localized surface elasticity measurements using an atomic force microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 4498–4505 (1997)
S. Amelio, A.V. Goldade, U. Rabe, V. Scherer, B. Bhushan, W. Arnold: Measurements of mechanical properties of ultra-thin diamond-like carbon coatings using atomic force acoustic microscopy, Thin Solid Films 392, 75–84 (2001)
D.M. Eigler, E.K. Schweizer: Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope, Nature 344, 524–528 (1990)
A.L. Weisenhorn, J.E. MacDougall, J.A.C. Gould, S.D. Cox, W.S. Wise, J. Massie, P. Maivald, V.B. Elings, G.D. Stucky, P.K. Hansma: Imaging and manipulating of molecules on a zeolite surface with an atomic force microscope, Science 247, 1330–1333 (1990)
I.W. Lyo, Ph. Avouris: Field-induced nanometer-to-atomic-scale manipulation of silicon surfaces with the STM, Science 253, 173–176 (1991)
O.M. Leung, M.C. Goh: Orientation ordering of polymers by atomic force microscope tip-surface interactions, Science 225, 64–66 (1992)
D.W. Abraham, H.J. Mamin, E. Ganz, J. Clark: Surface modification with the scanning tunneling microscope, IBM J. Res. Dev. 30, 492–499 (1986)
R.M. Silver, E.E. Ehrichs, A.L. de Lozanne: Direct writing of submicron metallic features with a scanning tunnelling microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 247–249 (1987)
A. Kobayashi, F. Grey, R.S. Williams, M. Ano: Formation of nanometer-scale grooves in silicon with a scanning tunneling microscope, Science 259, 1724–1726 (1993)
B. Parkinson: Layer-by-layer nanometer scale etching of two-dimensional substrates using the scanning tunneling microscopy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 112, 7498–7502 (1990)
A. Majumdar, P.I. Oden, J.P. Carrejo, L.A. Nagahara, J.J. Graham, J. Alexander: Nanometer-scale lithography using the atomic force microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2293–2295 (1992)
B. Bhushan: Micro/Nanotribology and its applications to magnetic storage devices and MEMS, Tribol. Int. 28, 85–96 (1995)
L. Tsau, D. Wang, K.L. Wang: Nanometer scale patterning of silicon(100) surface by an atomic force microscope operating in air, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2133–2135 (1994)
E. Delawski, B.A. Parkinson: Layer-by-layer etching of two-dimensional metal chalcogenides with the atomic force microscope, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 1661–1667 (1992)
B. Bhushan, G.S. Blackman: Atomic force microscopy of magnetic rigid disks and sliders and its applications to tribology, ASME J. Tribol. 113, 452–458 (1991)
O. Marti, B. Drake, P.K. Hansma: Atomic force microscopy of liquid-covered surfaces: atomic resolution images, Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 484–486 (1987)
B. Drake, C.B. Prater, A.L. Weisenhorn, S.A.C. Gould, T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate, D.S. Cannell, H.G. Hansma, P.K. Hansma: Imaging crystals, polymers and processes in water with the atomic force microscope, Science 243, 1586–1589 (1989)
M. Binggeli, R. Christoph, H.E. Hintermann, J. Colchero, O. Marti: Friction force measurements on potential controlled graphite in an electrolytic environment, Nanotechnology 4, 59–63 (1993)
G. Meyer, N.M. Amer: Novel optical approach to atomic force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 53, 1045–1047 (1988)
J.H. Coombs, J.B. Pethica: Properties of vacuum tunneling currents: Anomalous barrier heights, IBM J. Res. Dev. 30, 455–459 (1986)
M.D. Kirk, T. Albrecht, C.F. Quate: Low-temperature atomic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59, 833–835 (1988)
F.J. Giessibl, Ch. Gerber, G. Binnig: A low-temperature atomic force/scanning tunneling microscope for ultrahigh vacuum, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 9, 984–988 (1991)
T.R. Albrecht, P. Grutter, D. Rugar, D.P.E. Smith: Low temperature force microscope with all-fiber interferometer, Ultramicroscopy 42–44, 1638–1646 (1992)
H.J. Hug, A. Moser, Th. Jung, O. Fritz, A. Wadas, I. Parashikor, H.J. Güntherodt: Low temperature magnetic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64, 2920–2925 (1993)
C. Basire, D.A. Ivanov: Evolution of the lamellar structure during crystallization of a semicrystalline-amorphous polymer blend: Time-resolved hot-stage SPM study, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 5587–5590 (2000)
H. Liu, B. Bhushan: Investigation of nanotribological properties of self-assembled monolayers with alkyl and biphenyl spacer chains, Ultramicroscopy 91, 185–202 (2002)
J. Foster, J. Frommer: Imaging of liquid crystal using a tunneling microscope, Nature 333, 542–547 (1988)
D. Smith, H. Horber, C. Gerber, G. Binnig: Smectic liquid crystal monolayers on graphite observed by scanning tunneling microscopy, Science 245, 43–45 (1989)
D. Smith, J. Horber, G. Binnig, H. Nejoh: Structure, registry and imaging mechanism of alkylcyanobiphenyl molecules by tunnelling microscopy, Nature 344, 641–644 (1990)
Y. Andoh, S. Oguchi, R. Kaneko, T. Miyamoto: Evaluation of very thin lubricant films, J. Phys. D 25, A71–A75 (1992)
Y. Martin, C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe: Atomic force microscope-force mapping and profiling on a sub 100-A scale, J. Appl. Phys. 61, 4723–4729 (1987)
J.E. Stern, B.D. Terris, H.J. Mamin, D. Rugar: Deposition and imaging of localized charge on insulator surfaces using a force microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 53, 2717–2719 (1988)
K. Yamanaka, H. Ogisco, O. Kolosov: Ultrasonic force microscopy for nanometer resolution subsurface imaging, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 178–180 (1994)
K. Yamanaka, E. Tomita: Lateral force modulation atomic force microscope for selective imaging of friction forces, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 34, 2879–2882 (1995)
U. Rabe, K. Janser, W. Arnold: Vibrations of free and surface-coupled atomic force microscope: Theory and experiment, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67, 3281–3293 (1996)
Y. Martin, H.K. Wickramasinghe: Magnetic imaging by force microscopy with 1000 Å resolution, Appl. Phys. Lett. 50, 1455–1457 (1987)
D. Rugar, H.J. Mamin, P. Guethner, S.E. Lambert, J.E. Stern, I. McFadyen, T. Yogi: Magnetic force microscopy – General principles and application to longitudinal recording media, J. Appl. Phys. 63, 1169–1183 (1990)
C. Schoenenberger, S.F. Alvarado: Understanding magnetic force microscopy, Z. Phys. B 80, 373–383 (1990)
U. Hartmann: Magnetic force microscopy, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 29, 53–87 (1999)
D.W. Pohl, W. Denk, M. Lanz: Optical stethoscopy-image recording with resolution lambda/20, Appl. Phys. Lett. 44, 651–653 (1984)
E. Betzig, J.K. Troutman, T.D. Harris, J.S. Weiner, R.L. Kostelak: Breaking the diffraction barrier – optical microscopy on a nanometric scale, Science 251, 1468–1470 (1991)
E. Betzig, P.L. Finn, J.S. Weiner: Combined shear force and near-field scanning optical microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2484 (1992)
P.F. Barbara, D.M. Adams, D.B. O’Connor: Characterization of organic thin film materials with near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM), Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 29, 433–469 (1999)
C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe: Scanning thermal profiler, Appl. Phys. Lett. 49, 1587–1589 (1986)
C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe: Microscopy of chemical-potential variations on an atomic scale, Nature 344, 317–319 (1990)
A. Majumdar: Scanning thermal microscopy, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 29, 505–585 (1999)
O.E. Husser, D.H. Craston, A.J. Bard: Scanning electrochemical microscopy – high resolution deposition and etching of materials, J. Electrochem. Soc. 136, 3222–3229 (1989)
Y. Martin, D.W. Abraham, H.K. Wickramasinghe: High-resolution capacitance measurement and potentiometry by force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 52, 1103–1105 (1988)
M. Nonnenmacher, M.P. O’Boyle, H.K. Wickramasinghe: Kelvin probe force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 2921–2923 (1991)
J.M.R. Weaver, D.W. Abraham: High resolution atomic force microscopy potentiometry, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 9, 1559–1561 (1991)
D. DeVecchio, B. Bhushan: Use of a nanoscale Kelvin probe for detecting wear precursors, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 3618–3624 (1998)
B. Bhushan, A.V. Goldade: Measurements and analysis of surface potential change during wear of single-crystal silicon (100) at ultralow loads using Kelvin probe microscopy, Appl. Surf. Sci. 157, 373–381 (2000)
P.K. Hansma, B. Drake, O. Marti, S.A.C. Gould, C.B. Prater: The scanning ion-conductance microscope, Science 243, 641–643 (1989)
C.B. Prater, P.K. Hansma, M. Tortonese, C.F. Quate: Improved scanning ion-conductance microscope using microfabricated probes, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62, 2634–2638 (1991)
J. Matey, J. Blanc: Scanning capacitance microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 57, 1437–1444 (1985)
C.C. Williams: Two-dimensional dopant profiling by scanning capacitance microscopy, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 29, 471–504 (1999)
D.T. Lee, J.P. Pelz, B. Bhushan: Instrumentation for direct, low frequency scanning capacitance microscopy, and analysis of position dependent stray capacitance, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 73, 3523–3533 (2002)
P.K. Hansma, J. Tersoff: Scanning tunneling microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 61, R1–R23 (1987)
I. Giaever: Energy gap in superconductors measured by electron tunneling, Phys. Rev. Lett. 5, 147–148 (1960)
D. Sarid, V. Elings: Review of scanning force microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 9, 431–437 (1991)
U. Durig, O. Zuger, A. Stalder: Interaction force detection in scanning probe microscopy: Methods and applications, J. Appl. Phys. 72, 1778–1797 (1992)
J. Frommer: Scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy in organic chemistry, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 31, 1298–1328 (1992)
H.J. Güntherodt, R. Wiesendanger (eds): Scanning Tunneling Microscopy I: General Principles and Applications to Clean and Adsorbate-Covered Surfaces (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1992)
R. Wiesendanger, H.J. Güntherodt (eds): Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, II: Further Applications and Related Scanning Techniques (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1992)
D.A. Bonnell (ed): Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy – Theory, Techniques, and Applications (VCH, New York 1993)
O. Marti, M. Amrein (eds): STM and SFM in Biology (Academic, San Diego 1993)
J.A. Stroscio, W.J. Kaiser (eds): Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (Academic, Boston 1993)
H.J. Güntherodt, D. Anselmetti, E. Meyer (eds): Forces in Scanning Probe Methods (Kluwer, Dordrecht 1995)
G. Binnig, H. Rohrer: Scanning tunnelling microscopy, Surf. Sci. 126, 236–244 (1983)
B. Bhushan, J. Ruan, B.K. Gupta: A scanning tunnelling microscopy study of fullerene films, J. Phys. D 26, 1319–1322 (1993)
R.L. Nicolaides, W.E. Yong, W.F. Packard, H.A. Zhou: Scanning tunneling microscope tip structures, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 6, 445–447 (1988)
J.P. Ibe, P.P. Bey, S.L. Brandon, R.A. Brizzolara, N.A. Burnham, D.P. DiLella, K.P. Lee, C.R.K. Marrian, R.J. Colton: On the electrochemical etching of tips for scanning tunneling microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 8, 3570–3575 (1990)
R. Kaneko, S. Oguchi: Ion-implanted diamond tip for a scanning tunneling microscope, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 28, 1854–1855 (1990)
F.J. Giessibl: Atomic resolution of the silicon(111)–(7 × 7) surface by atomic force microscopy, Science 267, 68–71 (1995)
B. Anczykowski, D. Krueger, K.L. Babcock, H. Fuchs: Basic properties of dynamic force spectroscopy with the scanning force microscope in experiment and simulation, Ultramicroscopy 66, 251–259 (1996)
T.R. Albrecht and C.F. Quate: Atomic resolution imaging of a nonconductor by atomic force microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 62, 2599–2602 (1987)
S. Alexander, L. Hellemans, O. Marti, J. Schneir, V. Elings, P.K. Hansma: An atomic-resolution atomic-force microscope implemented using an optical lever, J. Appl. Phys. 65, 164–167 (1989)
G. Meyer, N.M. Amer: Optical-beam-deflection atomic force microscopy: The NaCl(001) surface, Appl. Phys. Lett. 56, 2100–2101 (1990)
A.L. Weisenhorn, M. Egger, F. Ohnesorge, S.A.C. Gould, S.P. Heyn, H.G. Hansma, R.L. Sinsheimer, H.E. Gaub, P.K. Hansma: Molecular resolution images of Langmuir–Blodgett films and DNA by atomic force microscopy, Langmuir 7, 8–12 (1991)
J. Ruan, B. Bhushan: Atomic-scale and microscale friction of graphite and diamond using friction force microscopy, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 5022–5035 (1994)
D. Rugar, P.K. Hansma: Atomic force microscopy, Phys. Today 43, 23–30 (1990)
D. Sarid: Scanning Force Microscopy (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford 1991)
G. Binnig: Force microscopy, Ultramicroscopy 42–44, 7–15 (1992)
E. Meyer: Atomic force microscopy, Surf. Sci. 41, 3–49 (1992)
H.K. Wickramasinghe: Progress in scanning probe microscopy, Acta Mater. 48, 347–358 (2000)
A.J. den Boef: The influence of lateral forces in scanning force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62, 88–92 (1991)
M. Radmacher, R.W. Tillman, M. Fritz, H.E. Gaub: From molecules to cells: Imaging soft samples with the atomic force microscope, Science 257, 1900–1905 (1992)
F. Ohnesorge, G. Binnig: True atomic resolution by atomic force microscopy through repulsive and attractive forces, Science 260, 1451–1456 (1993)
G. Neubauer, S.R. Coben, G.M. McClelland, D. Horne, C.M. Mate: Force microscopy with a bidirectional capacitance sensor, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 61, 2296–2308 (1990)
T. Goddenhenrich, H. Lemke, U. Hartmann, C. Heiden: Force microscope with capacitive displacement detection, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 8, 383–387 (1990)
U. Stahl, C.W. Yuan, A.L. Delozanne, M. Tortonese: Atomic force microscope using piezoresistive cantilevers and combined with a scanning electron microscope, Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2878–2880 (1994)
R. Kassing, E. Oesterschulze: Sensors for scanning probe microscopy. In: Micro/Nanotribology and Its Applications, ed. by B. Bhushan (Kluwer, Dordrecht 1997) pp.35–54
C.M. Mate: Atomic-force-microscope study of polymer lubricants on silicon surfaces, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68, 3323–3326 (1992)
S.P. Jarvis, A. Oral, T.P. Weihs, J.B. Pethica: A novel force microscope and point contact probe, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64, 3515–3520 (1993)
D. Rugar, H.J. Mamin, P. Guethner: Improved fiber-optical interferometer for atomic force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 2588–2590 (1989)
C. Schoenenberger, S.F. Alvarado: A differential interferometer for force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 60, 3131–3135 (1989)
D. Sarid, D. Iams, V. Weissenberger, L.S. Bell: Compact scanning-force microscope using laser diode, Opt. Lett. 13, 1057–1059 (1988)
N.W. Ashcroft, N.D. Mermin: Solid State Physics (Holt Reinhart and Winston, New York 1976)
G. Binnig, D.P.E. Smith: Single-tube three-dimensional scanner for scanning tunneling microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 57, 1688 (1986)
S.I. Park, C.F. Quate: Digital filtering of STM images, J. Appl. Phys. 62, 312 (1987)
J.W. Cooley, J.W. Tukey: An algorithm for machine calculation of complex Fourier series, Math. Comput. 19, 297 (1965)
J. Ruan, B. Bhushan: Atomic-scale friction measurements using friction force microscopy: Part I – General principles and new measurement techniques, ASME J. Tribol. 116, 378–388 (1994)
T.R. Albrecht, S. Akamine, T.E. Carver, C.F. Quate: Microfabrication of cantilever styli for the atomic force microscope, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 8, 3386–3396 (1990)
O. Marti, S. Gould, P.K. Hansma: Control electronics for atomic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59, 836–839 (1988)
O. Wolter, T. Bayer, J. Greschner: Micromachined silicon sensors for scanning force microscopy, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 9, 1353–1357 (1991)
E. Meyer, R. Overney, R. Luthi, D. Brodbeck: Friction force microscopy of mixed Langmuir–Blodgett films, Thin Solid Films 220, 132–137 (1992)
H.J. Dai, J.H. Hafner, A.G. Rinzler, D.T. Colbert, R.E. Smalley: Nanotubes as nanoprobes in scanning probe microscopy, Nature 384, 147–150 (1996)
J.H. Hafner, C.L. Cheung, A.T. Woolley, C.M. Lieber: Structural and functional imaging with carbon nanotube AFM probes, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 77, 73–110 (2001)
G.S. Blackman, C.M. Mate, M.R. Philpott: Interaction forces of a sharp tungsten tip with molecular films on silicon surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 2270–2273 (1990)
S.J. O’Shea, M.E. Welland, T. Rayment: Atomic force microscope study of boundary layer lubrication, Appl. Phys. Lett. 61, 2240–2242 (1992)
J.P. Cleveland, S. Manne, D. Bocek, P.K. Hansma: A nondestructive method for determining the spring constant of cantilevers for scanning force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64, 403–405 (1993)
D.W. Pohl: Some design criteria in STM, IBM J. Res. Dev. 30, 417 (1986)
W.T. Thomson, M.D. Dahleh: Theory of Vibration with Applications, 5th edn. (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River 1998)
J. Colchero: Reibungskraftmikroskopie. Ph.D. Thesis (University of Konstanz, Konstanz 1993)
G.M. McClelland, R. Erlandsson, S. Chiang: Atomic force microscopy: General principles and a new implementation. In: Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol.6B, ed. by D.O. Thompson, D.E. Chimenti (Plenum, New York 1987) pp.1307–1314
Y.R. Shen: The Principles of Nonlinear Optics (Wiley, New York 1984)
T. Baumeister, S.L. Marks: Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 7th edn. (McGraw-Hill, New York 1967)
J. Colchero, O. Marti, H. Bielefeldt, J. Mlynek: Scanning force and friction microscopy, Phys. Stat. Sol. 131, 73–75 (1991)
R. Young, J. Ward, F. Scire: Observation of metal-vacuum-metal tunneling, field emission, and the transition region, Phys. Rev. Lett. 27, 922 (1971)
R. Young, J. Ward, F. Scire: The topographiner: An instrument for measuring surface microtopography, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 43, 999 (1972)
C. Gerber, O. Marti: Magnetostrictive positioner, IBM Tech. Discl. Bull. 27, 6373 (1985)
R. Garcìa Cantù, M.A. Huerta Garnica: Long-scan imaging by STM, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. A 8, 354 (1990)
C.J. Chen: In situ testing and calibration of tube piezoelectric scanners, Ultramicroscopy 42–44, 1653–1658 (1992)
R.G. Carr: Finite element analysis of PZT tube scanner motion for scanning tunnelling microscopy, J. Microsc. 152, 379–385 (1988)
C.J. Chen: Electromechanical deflections of piezoelectric tubes with quartered electrodes, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 132 (1992)
N. Libioulle, A. Ronda, M. Taborelli, J.M. Gilles: Deformations and nonlinearity in scanning tunneling microscope images, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 9, 655–658 (1991)
E.P. Stoll: Restoration of STM images distorted by time-dependent piezo driver aftereffects, Ultramicroscopy 42–44, 1585–1589 (1991)
R. Durselen, U. Grunewald, W. Preuss: Calibration and applications of a high precision piezo scanner for nanometrology, Scanning 17, 91–96 (1995)
J. Fu: In situ testing and calibrating of Z-piezo of an atomic force microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 3785–3788 (1995)
R.C. Barrett, C.F. Quate: Optical scan-correction system applied to atomic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62, 1393 (1991)
R. Toledo-Crow, P.C. Yang, Y. Chen, M. Vaez-Iravani: Near-field differential scanning optical microscope with atomic force regulation, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 2957–2959 (1992)
J.E. Griffith, G.L. Miller, C.A. Green: A scanning tunneling microscope with a capacitance-based position monitor, J. Vacuum Sci. Technol. B 8, 2023–2027 (1990)
A.E. Holman, C.D. Laman, P.M.L.O. Scholte, W.C. Heerens, F. Tuinstra: A calibrated scanning tunneling microscope equipped with capacitive sensors, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67, 2274–2280 (1996)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bhushan, B., Marti, O. (2008). Scanning Probe Microscopy – Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes. In: Nanotribology and Nanomechanics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77608-6_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77608-6_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-77607-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-77608-6
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)