Abstract
The richness and diversity of the Amazon rainforest are widely known. Its key role in the regulation of ecological services is also notorious. All this knowledge, however, has not translated itself into the construction of a governance architecture that efficiently protects the rainforest or creates the means to a development in the region that is more sustainable. This chapter analyses where the Amazon stood in the Brazilian political scenario from the second half of the 1900s onwards in order to understand the representations of the forest, which contributed to keep terra preta de índio out of the scientific and political agendas.
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Notes
- 1.
http://infoener.iee.usp.br/cenbio/brasil/amlegal/amlegal.htm (Accessed on 17 October 2014).
- 2.
Initially, it was thought that agriculture came about quickly and then led to the domestication of plans (Oliver 2008). This would have led people to settle and consequently would have led to civilisation. This is no longer true. Now it is believed that agriculture came after domestication and a life of settlement. Before agriculture, or domesticated crops, there was a period of human and plant interactions that was beneficial for all. Therefore, agriculture was not a revolution because people had been meddling with plants for a while (Balter 2007).
- 3.
In this case manage is to protect the Forest.
- 4.
In fact, the Amazon is said to be a key regulator of several regimes, not just for water and climate. And a change in this system could trigger changes in several aspects that no one can foresee.
- 5.
Numbers released by the INPE (National Institute of Spatial Research) (Agencia Estado 2009) have shown that although deforestation has been decreasing, the levels of degradation are almost double that of deforestation. This demonstrates that degradation has to be taken into account. According to the IPCC, degradation is (IPCC 2003: 14) the long-term loss of at least y% of forest carbon stocks (and forest values) since time that is directly human induced by a certain amount of time and not be deforestation (Murdiyarso et al. 2008: 100). The activities that lead to degradation are: selective logging, large-scale and open forest fires, collecting non-timber forest products as well as wood for fuel, shifting cultivation, producing charcoal, grazing and sub-canopy fires. Degradation, however, is harder to pin down, as well as monitor and verify, than deforestation.
- 6.
The Water Code, for example, focused on the water use by the industries rather than the use of water by humans.
- 7.
In 1965, Law no. 4771 implemented what was then called the New Forest Code—it is called new because the first Forest Code was in 1934. The need for a new Forest Code came from the fact the 1934 Code was not successful in its implementation. Since 2010 a new wave of discussion started in Brazil as deputy Aldo Rebelo pushed for a change in the 1965 Forest Code.
- 8.
This was true until 1985 when the second oil crisis hit (Melo 2006).
- 9.
The Drugs of the Hinterland, as Drogas do Sertão in Portuguese, were cinnamon, clove, indigo, cacao, timber, aromatic roots, etc. which were used in food production, seasoning, naval construction and pharmacy in Western Europe.
- 10.
The 31st Target was the development of the city of Brasília.
- 11.
http://www.museu-goeldi.br/institucional/linhatempo/lt_fs.htm (accessed on 24 October 2014).
- 12.
Needless to say, before the 1970s the Amazon was also part of the government plans. However, from the 1970s onwards this was not sporadical but rather constant in the history of the forest.
- 13.
In the year 2001, Fernando Henrique Cardoso extinguished the institution and the Agency for the Development of the Amazon was created in its place (Lira 2005). In 2003 President Lula formally announced the creation of the Superintendence of the Development of the Amazon (SUDAM) and in 2007 this ‘new’ institution was born with the Complementary Law number 124 of the 3rd of January.
- 14.
SPVEA and later SUDAM, together with the Bank of Amazônia (BASA), were in charge of fiscal incentives. In an attempt to stimulate the settlement of industries in the region, there were several mechanisms, such as exemptions, deductions and financial reliefs. The exemptions referred to are tax revenue, import and export tax, stamp tax, amongst others (Banco Da Amazônia 1965: 20).
- 15.
FUNAI was not the first institution to be created to overlook issues related to the indigenous population. In 1910 the Service for Indigenous Protection (SPI in Portuguese) was created. The SPI operated officially until 1967, when it was replaced by FUNAI. The Service’s first director was Cândido Rondon. President Getulio Vargas put Rondon in charge of the National Council for Indigenous Protection (CNPI in Portuguese) in 1939. At that time, the Indigenous population was considered a national issue (Funari and Piñon 2011: 91). The SPI (1910–1967) was to integrate the indigenous population to the rest of the country through the introduction of objects and demands that would eventually lead to the end of an independent indigenous community.
- 16.
Although the timeframe of the IPND was from 1972 to 1974 and the PIN was part of it, within the PIN there were plans that started before, such as the Irrigation Plan of the Northeast. The PIN itself was created in 1970 by Decree—Law no. 1.106 of 1970.
- 17.
It is important to stress the impact of the RADAM Project. It carried out an integrated survey of the natural resources of a 1,500,000 km2 area near the influence area of the Transamazônica. Later, due to its success, the Project was gradually extended to all of the legal Amazon and then to all of Brazil.
- 18.
Although research had been carried out in the region in previous years (see Chap. 1) this knowledge was not enough to produce plans that reflected the reality of the Forest.
- 19.
The crops were chosen by INCRA and EMATER (the Enterprise for Technical Assistance and Rural Extension). Planners did not pay enough attention to the varieties of rice used by peasants.
- 20.
Translation of the author.
- 21.
Bodies and entities of the Union, states, the federal district, municipalities and foundations responsible for the protection and improvement of environmental quality form SISNAMA. The superior body of the SISNAMA is the Government Council. The Consultative and deliberative body is CONAMA; the central body is the Environment Ministry and the Executor body is IBAMA. The sectional bodies are the state bodies responsible for implementing and controlling projects/activities that are in the environment scope. The local bodies are those in the municipality sphere that are responsible for the control at that level.
- 22.
Article 225. All have the right to an ecologically balanced environment, which is an asset of common use and essential to a healthy quality of life, and both the Government and the community shall have the duty to defend and preserve it for present and future generations. http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleVIII.html (accessed on October 17, 2014).
- 23.
In 2005 the park had 5000 km2.
- 24.
Fernando Collor was president from 1990 to 1992.
- 25.
Programa Brasil em Ação http://www.abrasil.gov.br/publicacoes/download/public.htm (accessed on 17 October 2014).
- 26.
http://www.terra.com.br/istoe/politica/145532.htm (accessed on 27 January 2009).
- 27.
My intention here was not to dwell on the plan nor to present an accurate analysis of it. My intention was to provide the main points of the plan and present some of the criticism that it suffered.
- 28.
The main discourses do not take into account what traditional populations want. They are not empowered to participate in the discussions that directly impact not only their future but the way they live now. Although it can be argued that there was a shift from the logger discourse to the development discourse which focuses on community forest management, traditional populations still occupy the same place, relegated to second place. Both discourses used traditional populations as a tool to strengthen their argument.
- 29.
Logging in the Amazon has been done in most cases through unsustainable practices, coupled with tendencies which led to spatial mobility (May and Millikan 2010: 10).
- 30.
Needless to say, the involvement of the population is also a key factor for the success of such policies.
- 31.
In São Paulo, one representative represents ten times the number of electorate than a representative in the state of Amapá.
- 32.
This document shows that the sector that is more frequently linked to the environment is agriculture (61 %).
- 33.
One of the Multi-annual plans was the Avança Brasil programme, which had activities and investments planned from 2000 to 2007 (Fearnside 2005: 116). Avança Brasil was a development package with investments of US$20 billion for infrastructure in the Amazon. Most of the infrastructure focused on attending the demands of the soy industry.
- 34.
At the same time, states took advantage of their bigger autonomy and created about the same number of plots.
- 35.
670,000 plots of land in the Amazon have been given out for colonization. In addition, the government claims it will regularise another 300,000 plots, which would be a total of almost 1 million plots. The rural population of the Amazon is of 5 million. Taking into consideration that there is an average of five people per family, it is as if there was one plot of land for each family. This is a contradiction with the fact that the Gini coefficient for land establishments in Brazil has risen in the past two decades.
- 36.
This is due to the high cost of production in comparison with production in enterprises.
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Bezerra, J. (2015). The Amazon and Brazilian Development Policies. In: The Brazilian Amazon. World Forests, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23030-6_3
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