Keywords

1 Introduction

In a technological world that is evolving rapidly, digital integration has become an integral part of our lives. This transformation extends to the construction sector, where digitalization plays a crucial role in changing the existing approach to work. In recent years, the Industry 4.0 paradigm - a new revolutionary approach to the construction process, also known as Construction 4.0, driven by the integration of digital technologies (DTs), has been actively developing. Digital revolution opens up new possibilities from the early design phase to the end of the building lifecycle [1].

The integration of DTs is also becoming a powerful driver for the CE concept, which aims to minimize waste, reduce the use of virgin materials, and optimize the value of products through reuse and prolonged life [2, 3]. According to the CE Action plan, modern approaches based on the use of DTs such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Blockchain Technology (BCT), and Artificial Intelligence (AI) will accelerate the process of circularity in construction and the dematerialization of the economy. This strategic plan places a strong emphasis on the integration of digitalization strategies. Thus, it is assumed that DTs have significant potential to support CE in architecture, engineering, and construction [4].

Digitalization provides a wealth of data that can be systematically analyzed to identify opportunities for the collection, reuse, recycling, and effective management of End-of-Life (EoL) for building elements. Furthermore, it facilitates real-time insights into product availability based on element location, thereby optimizing resource management and enhancing the overall efficiency of the design and construction process. Various digital tools and technologies play a critical role in increasing the transparency of the supply chain, allowing for the tracing of the origin and life cycle of building materials.

In light of the evolving roles of DTs in the construction industry, extensive research has been conducted to explore various aspects such as trends, barriers, and methodologies supporting this research direction. Despite the progress made, the accelerated development of DTs necessitates ongoing research to address emerging issues and opportunities. Particularly noteworthy is the rapid advancement of AI and its ability to learn quickly. Given all, predicting the possible trajectory of digitalization within the CE context is now a highly pertinent task.

This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of current practices related to DTs and their integration into CE practices, emphasizing their applications, opportunities, and limitations and exploring recent trends in the evolving landscape of DTs in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry.

2 Materials and Methods

This research endeavors to comprehensively examine the prevalent DTs and tools employed in the building sector, with a primary focus on facilitating the transition to a CE. The objective is to delineate the roles and synergies of these tools throughout various stages of a building’s life cycle, emphasizing their interactions with digital MPs. To achieve this goal, the current study critically reviews the state of the art, spotlighting six widely utilized DTs in the building domain: 1) Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Digital Twins, 2) Internet of Things (IoT), 3) Blockchain Technology (BCT), 4) Scanning Technologies, 5) Artificial Intelligence (AI), and 6) Material Passports (MPs). Subsequently, the study examines the interactions of these analyzed DTs with MPs, addressing the potential integration and the benefits they bring in supporting CE strategies within the processes and practices of building construction. Following this, the study maps these tools across the six pivotal life cycle stages of a building: 1) conception, 2) design, 3) procurement, 4) construction, 5) operation and maintenance, and 6) deconstruction. This mapping exercise serves the purpose of discerning the roles and collaborative synergies among the tools, thereby supporting the realization of digital and circularity objectives specific to each life cycle stage. The mapping is complemented by a comprehensive discussion, elucidating the main challenges and barriers that hinder the full exploitation of digitalization in the AEC. Furthermore, the discussion highlights future perspectives and research opportunities aimed at addressing the identified gaps.

3 Digital Technologies in the Construction Industry

3.1 BIM and Digital Twins

Building Information Modeling (BIM) stands out as the foremost digital tool extensively employed to support the design, construction, and operation of buildings, as well as to facilitate EoL processes [5]. It provides a precise digital representation of building components. Using BIM for effective pre-demolition audits can facilitate and ensure the assessment of the potential to recover, reuse, and recycle material flows [6].

The application of BIM during the demolition process helps monitor the overall condition and performance of the components, as well as the intended recommendations for the demolition stage [7]. For enhanced circularity at the deconstruction, BIM is utilized to assess current conditions, identify components for possible reuse, and conduct a 4D deconstruction simulation integrated with a schedule and a 3D model [8]. Previous studies have emphasized a positive characteristic of BIM - its significant role in improving collaboration and facilitating information sharing among the various stakeholders involved in construction projects.

Digital Twins (DTw) surpass BIM by incorporating live data from the actual operation of a structure, enabling continuous monitoring, analysis, and optimization. A DTw serves as a virtual model accurately representing the geometry, structure, and physical attributes of a real-world product or building. Operating as a sophisticated 3D digital replica, it seamlessly integrates the realms of cyber and physical spaces, finding applications in diverse areas such as product design and production planning. In the context of the built environment, during the operational stages, DTw facilitate the monitoring of energy management, indoor comfort, and safety. Notably, within the framework of circularity, the capabilities of DTw can be further harnessed by generating unique identifications for individual components, commonly referred to as Material Passports (MPs). This will be covered in subsequent sections.

Numerous researchers invest considerable effort in developing Digital Building Logbooks (DBLs) using BIM modeling. However, they encounter challenges in achieving a consistent interconnection between the two. Among the different approaches, the one most used is the International Foundation Class (IFC) file format, although other solutions, such as the Ecodomus software developed by Siemens, also exist. This field is certainly under development, as all of existing approaches present both advantages and disadvantages, with none of them being absolutely suitable [9].

3.2 The Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized as a networked system comprising sensors and actuators seamlessly integrated with a computing infrastructure. Its primary function is to facilitate the monitoring and management of the health and activities of interconnected objects and machines. This technological framework establishes internet connectivity among sensor-equipped devices, thereby enabling autonomous data collection and analysis [10].

Through the autonomous collection and analysis of data, IoT plays a pivotal role in reducing waste, losses, and expenses, while simultaneously enhancing the tracking and traceability of materials across the supply chain [11]. Consequently, this technology aligns with and supports the implementation of CE principles [12].

3.3 Blockchain Technology (BCT)

Blockchain Technology (BCT) serves as a geographically dispersed and shared database. It functions within a peer-to-peer network, employing a consensus mechanism to uphold the integrity and accuracy of data, which is aggregated into a “chain.” This allows for replication across computer nodes. BCT plays a key role in managing information networks, particularly in supply chain management [14].

In the AEC, BCT is increasingly employed to support the tracking of the entire supply chain, including the origins of materials and components. It proves for data analysis, facilitating the potential reuse of information. The technology enables efficient traceability and supports secure, decentralized data exchange between suppliers and contractors. Consequently, BCT is evolving into an indispensable tool for construction companies, particularly during the stages of building construction and materials supply chain [13]. From a product perspective, BCT holds substantial promise in various phases of the product life cycle, ensuring control and quality [14].

3.4 Scanning Technologies

Scanning technologies (ST), known as laser scanning or LiDAR, determine distances to points around a laser scanner, generating local coordinates cross-referenced with geographic coordinates. Predominantly used in the AEC for inspection, monitoring, and 3D reconstruction [15], these technologies contribute significantly to circularity by creating BIMs, CIMs, and MPs. These models, enriched with valuable information, support local governance, smart city initiatives, and CE efforts. Also, ST play a role in reconstructing building facades for energy-based simulations in retrofitting existing structures [16].

ST provides information about geometry and surface materials. For the implementation of CE practices such as preservation, reuse, and recycling, detailed information on the material composition of building elements is crucial, surpassing surface materials. To identify material types within walls and slabs, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) was employed in a study to generate MPs for a building [17]. GPR serves as a near-surface geophysical tool for non-destructive characterization of subsurface targets by detecting changes in the electromagnetic properties of materials [18].

3.5 Artificial Intelligence and Robot Learning

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a key technology driving the transition to a CE, offering three main opportunities: (1) Circular product, material, and component design; (2) Circular business model operations; and (3) Infrastructure optimization for the circular flow of materials and products. In the product development life cycle, AI plays a crucial role in analyzing and improving processes by efficiently handling large datasets and saving time through high-performance computing. In the AEC, AI applications, such as safety measures, structural health monitoring, risk detection, activity recognition, energy demand modeling, cost prediction, computer vision, and intelligent optimization, present significant opportunities [19]. The utilization of AI can lead to significant advancements, one of which is the implementation of MPs. Moreover, when combined with complementary technologies, such as sensors and IoT for smart monitoring, AI not only streamlines the automation of building systems management to improve thermal comfort and optimize energy consumption but also actively participates in shaping the maintenance plan of the building by suggesting preventive actions before potential failures, yet not prematurely [20]. It contributes to CE principles by maximizing the utilization of system components.

A significant potential of application AI and Robot-learning technologies arises at the end of the life cycle of a building. Nežerka et al. [21] harnessed these technologies to develop a machine-learning procedure for recognizing and classifying fragments of Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW). This innovation facilitates the deconstruction process, making it more efficient and streamlined.

3.6 Material Passports (MPs)

Material Passports (MPs) are defined as a comprehensive dataset designed to serve as a guiding source for the analysis of circularity of building products. They play a pivotal role in facilitating decision-making processes related to the recovery, recycling, and reuse of materials and products, as well as all essential information throughout their entire life cycle, promoting optimal use and smart practices [22]. MPs can take the form of a digital presentation on an online platform linked to a database or a manual record of materials. These records encompass important details such as composition, impacts, and supply chain information. By serving as a universal tool, MPs contribute to optimizing the design and product use in the early stages of a building’s life cycle. They also aid in evaluating potential changes during the operational phase and addressing considerations at the end of the life cycle. The use of tools like MPs promotes circularity and minimizes waste in construction practices.

4 Integration of Material Passports Within Digital Technologies

From a CE perspective, technologies and tools such as BIM, AI, BCT, IoT and MPs represent innovative solutions that play a pivotal role in facilitating the twin transition towards both green and digital initiatives. These DTs excel in supporting efficient and effective decision-making processes, especially concerning the optimal use and management of resources and energy across the various lifecycle stages of buildings. To fully harness the potential of these technological advancements, it is strongly recommended to employ a collaborative approach. This collaborative effort can expand and complement the capabilities of each technology, delivering even greater benefits for creating sustainable and circular buildings and built environment, overcoming existing and potential barriers to implementation. In this context, this section will focus specifically on exploring the synergies between MPs and other DTs, recognizing their interdependence and potential to drive advancements in the field of CE in construction.

The integration of MPs into BIM models represents a current and promising research area that is attracting increasing interest among researchers. Many studies on the integration of MPs in BIM can be found in the literature, covering new and existing buildings. An illustrative example of such synergies is the development of BIM-based MPs for conducting environmental impact assessments and evaluating the recycling potential of building materials [23]. Several online platforms now automate the creation of MPs based on an IFC file using BIM models. This automation greatly facilitates the calculation of the circularity indicator for the construction, use, and EoL phases [24].

Similarly, MPs, when coupled with Digital twins, play a pivotal role in providing crucial information about the materials incorporated in a structure. Beyond preserving manufacturing histories and inspection records, MPs can be instrumental in estimating the remaining useful life of components. This information, in turn, guides decisions related to component recyclability and reusability [25]. The integration of Digital Twins and MPs enables predictive maintenance, thereby extending the lifespan of building elements and promoting the reuse of materials and components during the EoL stage.

However, developing a BIM-based MP for an existing building poses a significant challenge attributed to the difficulty in obtaining essential material properties due to the absence of available data. For most of the old buildings, there is a notable lack of drawings or pertinent information. Furthermore, even in instances where drawings or other documents are present, their reliability is compromised, given the potential for inconsistencies or alterations in the material elements due to renovations. To avoid such misinterpretations during the development of MPs, techniques such as laser scanning, GPR techniques, and expert-conducted autopsies are used [17].

Numerous studies have delved into the utilization of IoT for generating digital MPs. The collaboration of IoT and MPs establishes a streamlined information collection process characterized by a multidirectional flow of information. This is attributable to the continuous capture and real-time storage of data facilitated by IoT technologies [26]. In addition, a Blockchain-based application can ensure the protection of valuable information and its security against attacks [13]. Dounas [27] showed how BCT can expand the use of MP passports and bring benefits. For example, it is mentioned the possibility of integrating BCT with existing tools, such as BIM and MP.

AI can identify and categorize materials, track their origin, assess their environmental impact, and predict their future performance [28]. These functionalities facilitate data collection and extraction from various resources, data integration, and categorization into structured databases for digital MPs. Lastly, AI aids in the analysis of large and complex datasets, identifying material properties, certification, performance, and standards compliance. Hence, the integration of AI for MPs empowers construction professionals to make informed decisions regarding material reuse, recycling, and disposal, leading to reduced waste and improved resource efficiency [29].

5 Potential of Digital Technologies and Barriers’ Discussion

The key prerequisites for a successful implementation process include the establishment of a unified taxonomy grounded in common standards. An illustrative instance of this imperative is the proposed “Standard of Sustainability of construction works - Data quality for environmental assessment of products and construction work - Selection and use of data.” This standard, slated to replace CEN/TR 15941[30], underscores the necessity for a shared comprehension of an index encompassing building materials and elements. This index would consider factors such as origin, distance to the site, storage capability and aspects of reusability. A pivotal reference for promoting circularity within the AEC is the emerging Standard EN 17680 [31]. This standard outlines a systematic approach for assessing the sustainability of buildings, using a life cycle perspective. Meanwhile, ISO 37101:2016 [32] has been directed towards MPs to evaluate their performance. However, the assessment remains at general level, lacking a distinct metric for the indexing of materials.

The linchpin for the broader adoption of DTs lies in the establishment of a common taxonomy rooted in a coherent and market-wide adopted assessment framework. AI can be a useful tool to support or even initiate this taxonomy.

Taxonomy with its individual components in digital technology, plays a critical role in overcoming numerous obstacles in utilization. In the case of MP use, AI proves invaluable in organizing information, creating large databases of material data sheets, and highlighting issues related to predictive material usage [29]. Technologies such as IoT and BCT can effectively address diverse system challenges, resolving issues related to collecting and securely transferring information from BIM models and Digital Twins to MPs [13]. This extends to the management side, ensuring transparency in payment, documentation, and collaboration among stakeholders.

Upon analyzing existing studies and practices, it becomes evident that the greatest application of the DTs presented in this paper lies in the Operational and Deconstruction stages of building projects (see Fig. 1). Each tool finds its application in these stages, with a notable emerging trend in EoL material recognition of by AI during deconstruction processes. While BIM and MPs are commonly used in the initial stages of construction, the inclusion of AI for design predictions is a recent development. This suggests that other practices have yet to find active application there in these early project stages.

Fig. 1.
figure 1

Digital technologies mapping across various phases of the building life cycle.

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The potential of this work can be further realized and extended by incorporating additional tools and DTs such as Big Data, Robotics, and GIS. A synergistic combination of different technologies like MPs, GIS, and AI-scanning can facilitate the creation of comprehensive Material cadasters, scalable to the level of neighborhoods, districts, or even cities.

6 Conclusions

The realization of a complete transition to digitalization within the construction industry is no longer an unrealistic goal. The key prerequisites for a successful transformation include the establishment of a unified taxonomy and a shared understanding of an index encompassing building materials and elements. This index should consider factors such as their origin, distance to the site, storage capacity, and aspects of reusability.

The present study focused on the six most utilized DTs: BIM and Digital twins, IoT, BCT, AI, and ST along with digital MPs. These DTs are assumed to play a pivotal role in expediting the integration of CE practices into construction methodologies on a permanent basis. The findings of this study underscore the paramount significance of the explored topic, emphasizing the imperative need for continued efforts in leveraging DTs to foster sustainable and circular practices, particularly in the end-of-life phases within the construction industry. The positive impact of circularity practices, facilitated by digitalization, extends beyond just enhancing the level of processing, data handling, and categorization through MPs. A more comprehensive integration of DTs throughout all phases of building lifecycle compensates for shortcomings such as information gaps, protection, and transparency, improves decision-making processes and communication among stakeholders while significantly expanding information coverage. The synergies achieved by combining these technologies undoubtedly accelerate their development.