Keywords

1 Introduction

Women hold the key to climate’s future.

– Wangari Maathai, environmental activist and winner of the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize

Across the globe, as climate change threatens lives and livelihoods, it continues to widen the gender-related poverty gap among nations that do not have the mechanisms needed to mitigate its deleterious outcomes. According to the State of the Climate in Africa 2019 report (WMO, 2020), increasing greenhouse gas emissions, rising temperatures and sea levels, changing precipitation patterns, and threatening weather conditions endanger human health and safety, food and water security, and socio-economic development in the continent (UNFCCC, 2020).

Unfortunately, climate change has yet to receive the necessary attention on the continent. As the climatic conditions become more susceptible to natural disasters, it is critical that Africa begin to put in place measures to control the continuous depletion of the ozone layer and protect the most vulnerable population (Ray, 2021). A United Nations Climate Change (2020) study found that change is more deleterious in countries that depend on natural resources for survival. They also have limited capacity to respond to natural disasters caused by climate change, the most notable in Africa being flooding due to heavy rainfalls, regional droughts, and rising sea levels.

Africa’s women and girls form a large proportion of the poor and those most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The adverse biophysical impacts of climate change, along with the loss of energy sources, disrupt the agriculture sector and access to food and clean water, perpetuating a ruinous effect on the ability to provide nutrition and healthcare, societal roles placed on women that are often not placed on men (Awiti, 2022; Reckien et al., 2017; WHO, 2014; World Bank, 2011). Empirical research shows that the workdays of women engaged in agriculture fall by 11% more than men’s during periods of drought (Afridi et al., 2021). Physiologically, women are more susceptible to the adverse health effects of climate change (Sorensen et al., 2018). In addition, social disruption with loss of family and community has a disproportionate effect on women when climatic crises trigger a psychological effect that is often overlooked or played down (Moosa & Tuana, 2014).

Interestingly, women are both victims of climate change and potential architects of climate action, a dyadic lens that supports the study of climate effects in Africa (Osman-Elasha, n.d.). Natural disasters proliferate poverty, and women, who account for a larger number of the world’s poor at any point in time, suffer as this gap widens (United Nations Climate Change, 2020). This disaster-led inequality is exacerbated by women’s lack of participation in the climate change mitigation policy planning and implementation processes (UNFCCC, n.d.). Their gender-specific perspective enables women to influence climate change decisions and play active roles in adaptation, mitigation, and support of gender-responsive climate actions.

To mitigate the effect of climate change in Africa, women have been identified as integral actors as recipients and proponents of climate-oriented policies. In this chapter, we introduce the book’s core focus—the collective influence of gender, climate action, and technological innovations on sustainable development. This chapter offers an in-depth discussion of the three phenomena that are the focus of this text: climate change and the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, the impact of climate change in Africa, and the social and geopolitical links between gender and climate change in Africa.

2 Climate Change and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Two words—climate change—have become ubiquitous, permeating the media, politics and governments, and the scientific world. Tony Blair, a former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, called climate change the “world’s greatest environmental challenge” (Blair, 2006). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in their 2018 document, defined climate change as “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified … by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period.” Another definition points to a shift in climate patterns caused by greenhouse gas emissions that result from natural systems and human activities (Fawzy et al., 2020; Grossman, 2018). In simpler terms, climate change is a long-term change in the average weather, generally referred to as the climate, of a region (Santos & Bakhshoodeh, 2021).

Left unaddressed, climate change will impede the attainment of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. The 17 SDGs adopted by the UN in 2015 are complex and include intricate links that assure that the attainment of one goal is inevitably connected to the attainment of another. However, the importance of Goal 13: Climate Action lies in its being the foundation of the sustainability of all other SDGs because of its spin-off effect on other goals. “The SDGs are designed to represent the full range of sustainability issues on a global scale” (Dannevig et al., 2022). The UN’s 2030 agenda is, at its heart, a manifesto for sustainable development that will fail if steps are not taken to combat climate change.

Because the SDGs are interlinked, the achievement of one goal will improve the chances of achieving the others. For example, SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy calls for “affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all” by 2030. Currently, the most available source of energy for the world is fossil fuels. A transition to clean energy can be expected to meet the objectives of SDG 7 (Hernandez et al., 2020).

Access to food and clean water are currently at risk as a result of environmental damage (Ebi & Hess, 2020; Steffen et al., 2006). If climatic conditions continue to worsen, attainment of SDGs 1 (No Poverty), 2 (Zero Hunger), and 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), indeed most of the SDGs, could be stalled. Therefore, the tradeoffs and synergies between SDG 13 and other SDGs need to be aligned, leveraged, and adapted holistically. Sustainable development and the attainment of the SDGs require actions to counteract climate change locally, within countries and communities, and globally (Dannevig et al., 2022).

Women are most affected by climate change disruptions due to their active participation in the agricultural sector (ReliefWeb., n.d.). In Africa, about 62% of women are involved in agriculture (inclusive of all aspects of its value chain). Farm proceeds are threatened when climate disruption manifests through flooding, delayed rainfall, and other soil-mitigating conditions (Kamau-Rutenberg, 2018), including rising sea levels, increasing temperature, and extreme weather conditions.

3 Climate Issues in Africa

Africa is getting warmer. Increasing temperature levels related to climate change are the source of severe consequences to human health, water security, food, and the socio-economic development of the continent (WMO, 2022). Issues on climate change are gaining traction in Africa as the likely consequences of a climate disaster threaten this vulnerable continent (Adenle et al., 2017; African Development Bank Group, n.d.; Aryal & Marenya, 2021; Leal Filho et al., 2018; Leal Filho et al., 2019).

Climatic issues in Africa had attracted attention since the pre-industrial era (1850–1900) when Africa’s climate warmed more than the global average (WMO, 2022). Warming in Africa has continued to increase since 1900 (WMO, 2022), further fuelling the narrative that Africa is at risk of climate disaster if no action is taken.

The rising sea level along coastlines exceeds the global mean, contributing to the severity of erosion, flooding, and freshwater salinity in low-lying cities (WMO, 2022). Melting ice will possibly trigger more flooding of low-lying regions in Africa, causing extreme water shortages for farms and clean drinking water. Inevitably, high cholera, schistosomiasis, malaria, typhoid, and hepatitis-A cases ravage the communities. Landslides are another by-product of flooding in Africa, rendering many displaced communities.

Climate change has hampered food security in Africa. Of the world’s 36 countries dealing with food insecurity globally, 21 are in Africa, and about a third of Africa’s populace is facing starvation (Tumushabe, 2018). Climbing food prices also contribute to food instability and malnutrition among the poor. Though highly constrained by their resources, a few African nations are making efforts to augment food supply; others have not yet succeeded in establishing food distribution systems.

The growth of cities has come with the high price of losing rainforests in most African countries. African nations rely on sourcing wood from forests, an unsustainable approach that stresses the climate, sparking tempests, fires, and floods (Tosam & Mbih, 2015). This, unfortunately, interferes with access to safe drinking water, food, health services, and business transactions. Environmental dynamism restricts or decimates entirely the availability of food, medicine, homes, and livelihoods, and prompts inadequate nourishment and avoidable illness, leading to more hospitalisations and fewer workers, all of which have financial implications for every economic sector.

Northern Cameroon experiences long spells of extreme heat during its dry season (November to February), which brings desertification and health complications in its wake. Since the 1970s, the region has been equally prone to flooding during the rainy seasons (Molua & Lambi, 2006). Cholera follows these floods at an alarming rate due to overflow of toilets and septic tanks, for example, the 1996/1997 cholera crisis in Babungo town, Northwest Cameroon, was triggered by contaminated water from sewage overflows (Kometa & Ebot, 2012). Regular floods and dry spells are hurting horticultural efforts in several African nations, including Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia (Rao et al., 2019). Lake Chad and Lake Fianga in the Sahara Desert significantly drained in December 1984 (Molua & Lambi, 2006), leaving border towns in Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, and Niger Republic without irrigation or drinking water.

The WMO identified some notable problems resulting from climate change in African countries (Table 1).

Table 1 Climate change challenges and descriptions
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The World Meteorological Organization reports that only 28 African countries provide basic-level climate services, and only 9 fully provide these services. Even more alarming, drought forecasting and warning signs are available in only four countries. This is concerning considering the climate crisis vulnerability that Africa is currently experiencing and could still experience without well-designed interventions, including the widespread introduction of extant technological tools capable of tracking climate change. Technological empowerment of women should be a major consideration.

It should be stressed that Africa contributes only 2% to 3% of the global greenhouse gas emissions yet suffers disproportionately due to the economic, social, and environmental factors (WMO, 2022) associated with low mitigative and adaptive climate change action plans. Lacking mitigative and adaptive responses to climate change, deforestation, degradation, social and economic vulnerabilities, and biodiversity loss will endure in Africa.

Sy (2016) suggests that Africa’s vulnerability to climate change, when compared with other continents, can be traced to a dependency on agriculture for food and employment, a sector most harshly affected by climate change. Additionally, about 30% to 40% of Africa’s GDP comes from agriculture, with an 80% dependency on low-yielding and rain-fed harvests (Sy, 2016). Hence, any climate change that abates agricultural production has a multiplier effect on livelihoods and economic sectors across the continent.

4 Gender and Climate Change in Africa

The March 2019 landfall of Cyclone Idai in Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe caused the deaths of hundreds of people (Africanews, 2019; OCHA, 2019); destroyed homes, schools, and healthcare facilities; ruined crops; interrupted potable water supply; heightened risk of water-borne and other communicable diseases; and eliminated sources of livelihood. This disaster can potentially exacerbate gender-based violence and displacement risk (OCHA, 2019). Even climate change, it has become clear, is not immune from gender wars (New Scientist, 2007).

SDG 5: Gender Equality seeks to overcome the reality that in all spheres of life, women and girls are currently underrepresented, even in developed countries. Although the Gender Inequality Index (GII) shows a steady decline in most countries, gender inequality is still relatively high globally (UNDP, 2020). The gender-related effects of climate change have received little attention in the social sciences and humanities research, though in many societies, physiological, social, and cultural gender norms put constraints on the roles and rights of women and girls (Awiti, 2022; Huyer et al., 2021; Pearse, 2016; Sorensen et al., 2018). Research into the gender effects of climate change will contribute to SDG 5 policy considerations.

African countries are too often unprepared to shelter and care for their people during natural disasters. The immediate and long-term effects of climate disasters on women need to be documented with the aim of creating protections for this vulnerable population. Given their traditional care responsibilities in domestic functions, women are generally in the greatest need of assistance as they seek birthing shelters, childcare facilities, and help to care for elderly family members (Adeola, 2020). Premium frameworks for disaster management would mitigate the effects of displacement, illness and injury, loss of livelihood, and environmental and infrastructural damage in line with UN SDG 3: Good Health and Well-Being, SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation, SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, and SDG 13: Climate Action (Adeola, 2020). Any proposed policy should integrate gender considerations in national climate change planning, mitigation, and investment opportunities (Hall & Rojas, 2022).

The documented increase in natural disasters, such as floods, drought, and storms, has become a norm on the continent and is linked to changing climatic conditions. Most worrisome is the death toll and property loss, especially for women who, because of the inequities of property rights and social standing, become the most vulnerable victims (WHO, 2014). Especially hard hit are impoverished women who are most susceptible to malnutrition, malaria, displacement of homes and families, and death. Without meaningful action, billions of women in the coming decades will suffer the effects of climate change disasters (Costello et al., 2009; WHO, 2014).

Africa is already experiencing the horrors predicted by Costello et al. (2009), for example, severe famine anchored on drought spells has bedevilled women in sub-Saharan Africa (Tirado et al., 2015). Malnutrition and associated health-related complications were documented among South African women by Ansah et al. (2021), who found a direct correlation between extreme heat waves and specific health issues—particularly exhaustion, psychological stress, cardiovascular and respiratory issues, cancer, and kidney diseases. Heat waves are tough on women because, as the larger percentage of Africa’s farmers and suppliers of 90% of the continent’s food supply, they work outdoors when the sun is shining and lose their crops when it floods (Memunatu, 2017), for example, in 2017 floods in Sierra Leone destroyed farms and ruined several women-owned agricultural firms.

Rape remains a distressingly lingering crime in a number of African countries. The internally displaced persons (IDP) camps worsen the situation for African women. The UN reports of 2015 on the conditions in IDP camps in Malawi established multiple cases of sexual assault and rape within the campgrounds. A flood caused by climate change indirectly enabled these cases by forcing young African women in their prime out of their comfort zones into camps housing sexual predators. Displacement also raises the issue of female hygiene in the camps that lack essential sanitary kits, leaving women uncomfortable during their menstrual cycle and causing unhealthy habits that spiral into more health complications.

The IDP camps in Northern Nigeria recorded a high rate of child marriages between girls in the camps and men from neighbouring states, a problem blamed partly on the absence of government support and supervision. In some cases, young women turned to prostitution to survive in the camps (Egwu, 2018; Ewepu, 2022).

Documentation of such climate disasters will show that men also bear a burden of loss as they struggle to provide for their families, homes, and communities in the aftermath of a disaster. Nevertheless, a connection between climate change and its impact on women in Africa must be addressed in research and in humanitarian services. Globally, there is increasing acknowledgement of the importance of incorporating gender-sensitive approaches to combating climate change (World Bank, 2011) and growing cognisance of gendered responses through concerted and targeted climate actions.

5 Global Climate Actions

The realisation of the dangers of climate change has been gradual, with the world coming to terms with the dangers only as time went by and as more scientific evidence emerged along with the increased frequency of extreme weather events. Consequently, global actions to combat climate change and its dangerous impact have gradually risen in momentum over time. Today there is no debate among governments worldwide that the science of climate change is settled. Climate change activists such as NASA scientist James Hansen, former U.S. Vice President Al Gore, Sweden’s Greta Thunberg, and other activists have helped to shed light on the realities of the dangers of climate change and spurred world agencies to take action (Butler, 2018).

Though many attempts have been made to combat the dangers of global climate change, none have been as urgent or decisive as the response of world leaders to the COVID-19 pandemic. The global response to the pandemic proved that governments could avert imminent danger even when scientific evidence is uncertain and inconclusive. However, hope for climate change remediation is not lost. Beginning with the Montreal Protocol, international climate accords have shown that decisive global actions can be taken on climate issues, and goals can be met when countries work together.

5.1 The 1987 Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol of 1987, a global agreement signed in September 1987, was designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) (UNEP, 2022a). The Protocol was the first treaty to achieve international ratification; it has been ratified by all United Nations members. The 2016 amendment to the Protocol, the Kigali Amendment, also adopted by all members, added the production and consumption of widely used alternatives to ODS to the list of substances dangerous to the ozone (UNEP, 2022a). Scientists have hailed the Montreal Protocol as a remarkable success, given the manner in which it has successfully reduced ozone-depleting substances and contributed to the protection of the climate (Albrecht & Parker, 2019; Goyal et al., 2019; McKenzie et al., 2019; Newman, 2018; UNEP, 2022a; Velders et al., 2007).

5.2 The United Nations’ Participation in Global Climate Change Actions

The earliest documented response to global climate change implications can be traced to 1972 when the United Nations Conference on the Environment identified air pollution as a major issue. Conference participants adopted a series of principles and resolutions for sound management of the environment, including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to coordinate responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system (UN Conference on the Human Environment, n.d.).

In 1979, the first international scientific conference on climate change was held in Geneva, Switzerland, when the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) gathered a group of scientists to discuss the then-emerging research and scientific evidence on climate change and the dangerous impact of the use of fossil fuels along with other human actions on the world’s temperatures and climate (Fawzy et al., 2020; WMO, 1979). In 1988, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WMO established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which enlists leading scientists to assess rigorously conducted scientific research that contributes to the formulation of climate-related policies (Fawzy et al., 2020; IPCC, 2013).

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established in 1992 but only came into force in March 1994. UNFCCC borrowed a leaf from the 1987 Montreal Protocol by binding members to act in the interest of global safety even though the scientific evidence of the hazards of climate change was then uncertain. The ultimate objective of the Convention was to stabilise and eventually reduce greenhouse gas emissions below dangerous levels. The Convention pressured developed countries to lead the way in this effort because they bore the greatest responsibility for the emission of greenhouse gases. UNFCCC is a member of the UN’s “Trio-Rio,” which includes the Convention on Biological Biodiversity and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, both of which embrace the study of the adverse effects of climate change (UN, 2022). To date, 198 countries have ratified the UNFCC Convention (UN, 2022).

The principal decision-making body of UNFCCC, the Conference of the Parties (COP), comprises all national parties to the Convention. COP members meet annually. Two notable agreements have emerged from their annual meetings: The Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015.

5.3 The 1997 Kyoto Protocol

The third annual meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP3) was held in Kyoto, Japan, December 1–11, 1997. The Kyoto Protocol was amended by the UNFCCC in 1997 but only came into force in 2005 (UN, 2022; Fawzy et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020). The Protocol called on developed countries to commit to emission reductions to 5.2% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 (Fawzy et al., 2020; Rosen, 2015; UN, 2022). This was in accordance with UNFCCC’s principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities” (Kim et al., 2020; UN, 2022). Developed countries were to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries as a means of driving sustainable development in the host countries as well as offsetting their own emission levels (Fawzy et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020). The Protocol’s policies and monitoring and reporting systems ensured the commitments were met.

Three market-based mechanisms—International Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism, and the Joint Implementation Mechanism—encouraged developed countries to cut emissions in a cost-effective manner (Fawzy et al., 2020). The Protocol provisions were designed to help the developing countries (listed in Annex 1 of the Protocol) to meet their greenhouse gas reduction commitments as they were the only ones specifically bonded to the Protocol but recognised the need for developing countries to continue to grow. According to the Kyoto Protocol, greenhouse gases to be limited included “carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)” (Fawzy et al., 2020, p. 4).

At the 2012 Qatar meeting, COP18 amended the Kyoto Protocol to include Doha Amendment, which adjusted the commitment period to 2013–2020 (UNFCCC, 2012). The Doha Amendment set a more ambiguous target, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 18% below 1990 levels (Fawzy et al., 2020). However, the Doha Amendment only came into force in December 2020, the end of the proposed commitment, when the required minimum of 144 countries reached an agreement. Clearly, the Kyoto Protocol, by its Doha Amendment, was an indication of developing countries’ failure to meet the initial deadline.

Unlike the Montreal Protocol, research into the success of the Kyoto Protocol, and by extension, the Doha Amendment, has been mixed. Some studies (e.g., Aichele & Felbermayr, 2012, 2013; Almer & Winkler, 2017; Grunewald & Martinez-Zarzoso, 2016; Kumazawa & Callaghan, 2012; Kim et al., 2020) reported that the Protocol has been somewhat successful. However, most studies have been sceptical, citing the challenges inherent in the design of the Protocol itself, the actions of some parties following the issuance of the Protocol, and most importantly, the substantial evidence of an overall increase in greenhouse gas emissions (Almer & Winkler, 2017; Eckersley, 2007; Grubb, 2016; Rosen, 2015). Challenges to the Kyoto Protocol emerged right from the beginning. The United States refused to ratify the Protocol, Australia vacillated during the process, and Canada backed out of the agreement (Eckersley, 2007; Grubb, 2016; Rosen, 2015). However, failure to meet the emission reduction targets may not mean that the Protocol has been unsuccessful. At the very least, the Protocol was a definite step towards combating climate change by setting emission reduction targets. Though reduction targets were not met, the carbon dioxide levels of the binding countries could have been much higher but for the Protocol (Aichele & Felbermayr, 2012, 2013; Almer & Winkler, 2017; Grunewald & Martinez-Zarzoso, 2016).

5.4 The 2015 Paris Accord

The Paris Accord (sometimes referred to as the Paris Climate Agreement or Paris Climate Accord), enforced in 2016, added more objectives, commitments, and enhancements to existing monitoring and reporting frameworks. The Paris Accord is seen by many as a climate change landmark because it is more flexible, and unlike the top-down approach of the Kyoto Protocol that handed down commitments to countries, the Accord calls for a bottom-up approach (Grubb, 2016; Thakur, 2021). Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Accord encourages parties to take adaptation actions that are country driven and gender responsive, and that take vulnerable groups, communities, and ecosystems into consideration.

Paris Accord member countries agreed to work towards limiting global average temperature to 2° centigrade above pre-industrial levels by the year 2100 and to continue to work towards limiting the increase to 1.5° centigrade (Fawzy et al., 2020; UN, 2015; NRDC, 2021). Countries are required to communicate and maintain Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and self-determined successive targets (UN, 2022). NDCs are climate action plans geared towards reducing greenhouse emissions and adapting to climate impacts (United Nations Climate Action, n.d.). Each member nation that signed on to the Paris Agreement is required to establish an NDC and update it every five years (United Nations Climate Action, n.d.). NDCs are at the heart of the agreement and were constituted to be submitted by all parties by 2020 and every five years thereafter (UN, 2015). Each country’s successive NDC report is expected to show progress, reflecting significant efforts in mitigation, adaptation, financial assistance, innovative technology adoption, capacity building, and transparency (Raiser et al., 2020; UN, 2015). Essentially, the NDCs serve as a country’s national climate action plan (Pauw et al., 2019; Roelfsema et al., 2020).

The Paris Accord can be seen as purely voluntary as individual countries make and periodically renew their pledges (Clémençon, 2016). Also, unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which required only selected countries to commit to reducing greenhouse gas emission levels, the Paris Accord calls on all parties to work towards reducing dangerous emissions. Consequently, the Accord recognises the need for countries to individually and collectively adapt to climate change and combat its dangers.

The Paris Accord obligates developed countries to provide financial and technological support as well as capacity building to developing countries (Fawzy et al., 2020; UN, 2015). The fundamental goal of the agreement is to promote sustainable development through mitigation and adaptation strategies, mainly through the use of alternative and sustainable sources of energy, and cooperative support through financial and technology transfer to developing and least developed countries. Despite the developed countries’ obligations, some see the Paris Accord as sidelining equity and environmental injustice as it puts pressure on the poorest and most vulnerable countries to control their future emission levels, leaving the developed countries that have contributed the most to climate change conditions off the hook (Clémençon, 2016). Consequently, the Accord’s commitment to “reflect equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances” (UN, 2015: article 2), some analysts perceived that a fundamental principle of the UNFCCC has been broken. The agreement, though, recognises that developing countries will take longer to reach their peak emission levels and consequently longer to contribute to excessive greenhouse gas emissions.

5.5 Climate Finance

UNFCCC, through its various conventions, notably the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Accord, calls on developed countries to assist developing countries with funding and transfer of green technologies. This aligns with its basic principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, recognition that not all countries have contributed equally to causes of climate change, and the least contributors to dangerous greenhouse emissions bear the brunt of the adverse effects of dangerous climate events. The convention’s insistence on developed countries providing funding for climate change mitigation and adaptation is a subtle but unmistakable reminder that “the polluter pays” (Mahat et al., 2019).

The UNFCCC describes climate finance as local, national, and transnational financing drawn from public, private, and alternative sources that seek to support the mitigation and adaptation actions to address climate change (Chowdhury & Jomo, 2022; Hong et al., 2020). A body of knowledge is now dedicated to the study of climate finance, such as the costs of carbon and emissions and the hedging of climate risks (Hong et al., 2020). Although climate finance is closely related to green finance, sustainable finance, low-carbon finance, and climate-related development finance (GRI, 2018; Mahat et al., 2019), it is much more encompassing than these narrowly defined concepts. Climate finance encompasses all finance issues relating to climate change and the study of such issues, or as aptly put by Mahat et al. (2019), “finance for climate change-related activities”.

In 2009 at COP15, held in Copenhagen, Denmark, developed countries pledged to collectively mobilise $100b annually towards climate finance by 2020 (Chowdhury & Jomo, 2022; GRI, 2018). However, that pledge was not met, and the timeline was shifted from 2020 to 2025 (Chowdhury & Jomo, 2022). Specific funds set up by the UNFCCC as part of the climate finance drive include the Green Climate Fund (GCF), the Adaptation Fund (AF), the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) (Garschagen & Doshi, 2022; Omukuti et al., 2022).

The GCF is the UNFCCC’s biggest climate finance fund (Garschagen & Doshi, 2022; Omukuti et al., 2022). It is a critical part of the historic Paris Agreement with a mandate “to support developing countries raise and realise their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) ambitions towards low-emissions, climate-resilient pathways” (GCF, n.d.). This multilateral climate finance fund was established in 2010 by UNFCCC to help the most vulnerable countries limit or reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. GCF invests in eight spheres to mitigate or adapt to climate change. Areas where actions are required for mitigation and adaptation are identified in Table 2:

Table 2 Mitigation and adaptation areas of GCF action in Africa
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Climate finance funds outside of the governance of the UNFCCC include the Climate Investment Funds (CIF), The Clean Technology Fund (CTF), and the Strategic Climate Fund (SCF) (Amerasinghe et al., 2017; Garschagen & Doshi, 2022). The UNFCCC climate funds give priority to least developed countries, small island developing countries, and African countries (Garschagen & Doshi, 2022; UNEP, 2022b). These countries can access funds as loans or grants after a project development, review, and approval process (Chowdhury & Jomo, 2022; Omukuti et al., 2022).

The current burden of providing climate finance lies heavily on the shoulders of developed countries. This is increasingly being seen as a form of climate justice, the concept of ensuring fair treatment and freedom from all forms of discrimination against the adverse impacts of climate change (Porter et al., 2020; Saraswat & Kumar, 2016). Although the provision of most of the climate finance by developed countries will not entirely quell the cries for climate justice, it is seen as a step in the right direction.

As mentioned earlier, women in Africa, in particular, are disproportionately affected by climate change due to pre-existing gender inequalities that limit their access to resources, education, and economic opportunities. To address this issue, climate finance initiatives have been put in place to support African women in adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change. One of the main forms of climate finance for African women is through the Green Climate Fund (GCF), which was established in 2010 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The GCF aims to provide financial resources to developing countries to support their efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change. In 2020, the GCF approved a grant of $10 million to support climate-resilient livelihoods for women in sub-Saharan Africa. The project, which is implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), aims to provide women with the skills and resources to adapt to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts and floods, and to diversify their income sources through sustainable agriculture practices (Green Climate Fund, n.d.).

Another example of climate finance for African women is the African Women’s Climate Finance Fellowship, a programme that seeks to empower African women to become leaders in climate finance. The fellowship is funded by the African Development Bank and other partners, and provides training and mentorship to African women to develop their skills and knowledge in climate finance. The goal is to increase their participation in decision-making processes related to climate finance (African Development Bank, n.d.).

Recently, at COP27, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) announced programmes to advance gender-responsive climate action. For example, the Gender Equity and Equality Action (GEEA) Fund, which is worth about $21.8 million, is committed to gender-responsive climate action (USAID, 2022). Also, as relates to Africa, an inaugural amount of $23 million has been invested by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) in a new project named “Egyptian Pioneers,” which aims to foster a more proficient and comprehensive Egyptian labour force, with an additional objective of promoting climate goals. The project will provide over 500 Egyptian women with scholarships for undergraduate and postgraduate studies, along with offering leadership and professional training and study abroad opportunities in the United States. The project is expected to span nine years (USAID, 2022).

Despite these initiatives, access to climate finance for African women remains a challenge, as they continue to face barriers such as limited access to financial institutions, inadequate legal frameworks, and insufficient representation in decision-making processes. Therefore, it is crucial for governments, international organisations, and the private sector to continue to support and prioritise climate finance initiatives for African women, in order to promote gender equality and sustainable development in the face of climate change.

5.6 Current State of Climate Change

Despite global climate actions, annual estimates of greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise. Between 1990 and 2019, greenhouse gas emissions increased by 67% (Crippa et al., 2020). Although a recent report shows a 5.1% decrease between 2019 and 2020 (Olivier et al., 2021), the reduction was due to the COVID-19 pandemic, additional evidence that human activities and industrialisation account for the rise in emissions. Early investigation of the effects of the Paris Accord through in-depth analysis of the NDCs and INDCs (intended NDCs) (ABD, 2015) of several countries (e.g., Nieto et al., 2018; Roelfsema et al., 2020) shows only minimal success. The world still has a long way to go to limit the long-term global temperature rise target of 1.5° centigrade, given the current implementation of countries’ NDCs.

The effects of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Accord may be significant in the sense that climate change is seen as urgent and important enough to cause countries to want to halt greenhouse gas emissions. Through its various climate finance initiatives, such as the GCF, costs of investments in the mitigation and adaptation to climate change are being financed. However, given the state of global temperatures, more still needs to be done, and done soon. African countries, in particular, need a sharper focus, given the effect of climate change on the continent. Africa must rise to the challenge.

5.7 Africa’s Climate Change Actions

5.7.1 Africa’s Climate Change Actions

Although the African continent has the lowest levels of greenhouse emissions and has contributed the least to global warming, it is the most vulnerable to the hazards and risks of climate change (AfDB, n.d.-b). It has been projected that by the twenty-second century, the average temperature on the continent is bound to be warmer than the average global temperature (Ofori et al., 2021). The World Bank estimates that a 3° centigrade temperature level increase could mean catastrophic disruption to food security in Africa (Kray et al., 2022). Africa stands exposed to continuous collateral damage from increased global temperatures into the next century if appropriate climate actions are not taken. So far, major actions against climate change by African countries have been in response to those taken at the global level. At the national level, the major thrust of climate change actions in African countries has been through their NDCs. These NDCs outline the climate actions that each country plans to take in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Here are some examples of NDCs in Africa:

  • Morocco’s NDC sets a target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 42% below business-as-usual levels by 2030. The country plans to achieve this through a range of measures, including increasing the share of renewable energy in the electricity mix, promoting energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from the transport sector (NDC Partnership, 2021).

  • Kenya’s NDC aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30% below business-as-usual levels by 2030. The country plans to achieve this through a variety of measures, including expanding renewable energy generation, promoting energy efficiency, and increasing forest cover (UNFCCC, 2020).

  • South Africa’s NDC sets a target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 28% below business-as-usual levels by 2025 and by 42% by 2030. The country plans to achieve this through a combination of measures, including expanding the use of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from the transport and waste sectors (South African Government, 2021).

  • Nigeria’s NDC aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% below business-as-usual levels by 2030 and by 45% with international support. The country plans to achieve this through a range of measures, including promoting renewable energy, increasing energy efficiency, and reducing emissions from the oil and gas sector (UNFCCC, 2020).

In addition to NDCs, many African countries are also involved in regional and international initiatives to address climate change. For example, the African Union has adopted a number of climate-related policies and initiatives, including the African Renewable Energy Initiative and the African Adaptation Initiative. Many African countries are also members of the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP), which is the main forum for international climate negotiations. There has also been assistance from global agencies. UNEP, for example, offers support to African countries to implement their NDCs (UN, 2022). African countries must begin to take more deliberate and specific climate actions. At the recent COP27, African countries demonstrated their commitment to taking action towards climate change across various areas (Africa NDC Hub, 2022). Furthermore, 37 African countries have pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by improving energy efficiency, reducing emissions from transportation and waste, and transforming industries (Africa NDC Hub, 2022)

5.7.2 Gender, Climate Action, and the Role of Technological Innovation in Africa

Inclusivity is not a tick-box exercise. It’s about how we internalise and mainstream women in decision-making at all levels. Uplifting women is not about putting men down, but how we all work together. Mandy Rambharos, ‘Presidential Climate Commission, South Africa’?

Women are natural leaders in resource management, sustainable household practices, and community involvement, all of which have yielded greater responsiveness to citizens’ needs and sustainable peace when applied to politics (United Nations Climate Change, 2020). Women’s inclusion in climate change matters at the leadership level improves outcomes on climate-initiated projects and policies. When women are involved in meaningful participation in issues or climate change projects, more impactful outcomes are achieved.

Responsive measures are needed by and for women in the fight against threatening climate change. For example, in drought conditions in north-eastern Nigeria, women displaced from their homes were targeted by the Boko Haram terrorists; in Malawi, over 1.5 million girls are at risk of becoming child brides, and many others have been forced into marriage due to economic losses related to climate change (Sirleaf, 2020). This vulnerability of women and girls to child marriage, sexual violence, human trafficking, and domestic violence has increased, and women are in a better position to plan against the reoccurrence of such realities. Women need to be part of the process of mitigating the gender-specific outcomes of climate change while also preventing the occurrence of natural disasters informed by climate change. Advancing the gender equality narrative towards women’s empowerment for the mitigation and response to climate change is invaluable at both grassroots and national levels, a topic that has been neglected for far too long.

It must be reiterated that the role of women in combatting climate change disasters is not only as victims but also as leaders. It was no surprise that the 2022 United Nations Conference on Climate Action adopted the theme Gender and Climate Change (Agenda 14) and emphasised the need for gender-responsive climate action that acknowledges the vulnerability of women and the girl child, how they can be protected, and how they can contribute to strategies to combat climate change (United Nations Climate Change, COP27, 2022).

The trend of natural disasters as a result of climate change has revealed the limited action channelled towards environmental sustainability globally and in Africa, especially as it pertains to women, especially those who are poor and earn their living off the land (United Nations Woman Watch, 2009). The United Nations Woman Watch (2009) identified four building blocks upon which women can stand to fight this climate war: mitigation, adaptation, technology transfer, and financing:

  • Mitigation focuses on how women can contribute to reducing unsustainable practices that increase carbon emissions.

  • Adaptation is a type of resilience needed to reduce vulnerabilities associated with climate disasters.

  • Technology focuses on innovative resources that can predict threatening climatic conditions and alert the public and appropriate protection services.

  • Financing generates funds to pursue the ultimate goal of climate sustainability through research and innovation aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and stabilising greenhouse gas concentration.

Some greenhouse gas emissions can be brought under control not only by replacing fossil fuels with renewable sources but by halting deforestation. Women in Africa reduce carbon emissions by engaging in sustainable domestic practices and farming practices that limit vulnerabilities associated with climate change. Women play a role in establishing sustainable climate-friendly practices when they are part of the decision-making process of funding projects and identifying appropriate areas for investment that will further promote the protection of people and property.

Technology can aid in the reduction of carbon emissions at home, on the farm, and in hospitality businesses—areas where women are fully represented. However, it will require the inclusion of women in the formation of access policies, practices, and training required to reach women in rural areas. Emerging technologies identified elsewhere in this book include integrated soil management practices, biotechnology, renewable energy, plant breeding, and synthetic biology. Renewable energy resources for climate change mitigation and energy sustainability must be encouraged.

Also, climate-smart technologies for empowering women farmers in Africa should be prioritised to promote user-friendly tools that are effective and affordable. Climate-smart agricultural practices can be adopted by women in African countries to address the problems of land degradation and desertification, and these could be extended to food security, the enhancement of timber production, and lowering the vulnerability of crops and livestock to climate change. Digital technologies are becoming nearly ubiquitous as societies around the world are significantly dependent on them. A chapter of the book examines the potential that cleantech, telehealth, edtech, blockchain, and artificial intelligence have for women’s development in Africa.

To curb climate change effect and adopt technological innovation, women must contribute their expertise and guidance in the development process to incorporate women-friendly technological tools. Additionally, training and empowerment programmes that women will need to fully have the capacity to adopt these practices would be identified and implemented.

The authors of this book call for the inclusion of women at the core of climate action remediation in Africa. Innovative technologies and progressive policies are key, but women and girls must be a central theme, particularly in green innovations.

6 Towards Implementing Gender-Responsive Action Plans: Policy Directions to Achieve Protection of Women in Africa

Climate change affects women and men differently … because of the different roles they play in society and their different access to resources. Vanessa Moungar, Director, Gender, Women and Civil Society, African Development Bank

Because climate change affects women and men differently, decision-makers should not craft policies that are gender-neutral. Climate change action plans should be utilised to identify gender-specific opportunities and relief strategies. In December 2014, the Conference of the Parties (COP) at the 20th Session (COP20) held in Lima, Peru, established the Lima Work Programme on Gender (LWPG) and created the Gender Action Plan (GAP) to advance gender balance and integrate gender consideration into climate change discussions (UNFCCC, n.d.).

In December 2019, COP25 parties agreed on an enhanced GAP focusing on five priority areas to “advance knowledge and understanding of gender-responsive climate action and its coherent mainstreaming in the implementation of the UNFCCC and the work of Parties, the secretariat, United Nations entities and all stakeholders at all levels, as well as women’s full, equal and meaningful participation in the UNFCCC process” (UNFCCC, n.d.).

These five priorities include:

  • Priority Area A: Capacity building, knowledge management, and communication

  • Priority Area B: Gender balance, participation, and women’s leadership

  • Priority Area C: Coherence

  • Priority Area D: Gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation

  • Priority Area E: Monitoring and reporting

The enhanced GAP’s five priorities include objectives, 20 activities, 35 outputs, and a scheduled review of implementation in 2022. Figure 1 provides a diagrammatic representation of the priority areas.

Fig. 1
A spoke diagram of the Gender action plan includes 5 priorities. 1. Capacity-building, knowledge management, and communication. 2. Gender balance, participation, and women’s leadership. 3. Coherence. 4. Gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation. 5. Monitoring and reporting.

Enhanced gender action plan. Source: Adapted from UNFCCC, n.d.

Full size image

Priority A: Capacity-building, knowledge management, and communication focus on strategies that will equip women to contribute to mitigating climate change through their individual practices and actions. Africa’s largely women-managed domestic activities were reported to contribute about 40% of the continent’s CO2 emissions (African Development Bank, n.d.). With adequate training and orientation on sustainable practices, these adequately monitored domestic activities could prove to support sustainability and positively drive the continent’s climate action.

Priority B: Gender balance, participation, and women’s leadership suggest that women should occupy leadership roles and participate in the policy formulation process in a way that promotes the policies’ effectiveness.

Priority C: Coherence seeks to synergise and strengthen numerous gender-centred programmes and policies that focus on women and climate actions to create a consistent and meaningful direction for gender and climate action.

Priority D: Gender-responsive implementation and means of implementation affirms that gender and climate plans must move from gender awareness to gender responsive. The focus must be on responding to the identified issues, not merely creating awareness of the issues.

Priority E: Monitoring and reporting note the importance of feedback on the plans that have been implemented to integrate women. Feedback would be shared amongst members to ensure improvement and better performance.

Overall, the enhanced GAP framework provides guidance for policy development and implementation at both the micro- and macro-level analyses of gender and climate action. According to Hall and Rojas (2022), countries are increasingly utilising climate change GAPs to identify gender-specific climate action plans and determine priority sectors through a participatory multi-stakeholder approach and putting in place a blueprint for action. African nations need to prioritise GAP too.

7 Conclusion

Gender and climate action have become a topical issue due to the imperative to integrate women into the creation of strategic plans and policies geared towards curbing climate disasters. Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to escalating climate change issues, and it is more urgent now than ever that stakeholders across the continent respond accordingly.

First, a thorough review of existing policies will reveal opportunities for gender-specific climate actions and blueprints that can put Africa in a position to tackle climate change. To be meaningful, policies must advocate for strategies that address the effects of climate change on the economic, social, and cultural realities of women in Africa.

Second, African nations’ leadership can design adaptive interventions acceptable to both women and men by conducting gender analyses to discover family and community vulnerabilities, identify regional climate-related hazards, and create risk-reduction initiatives, particularly for women in rural areas.

Third, African nations must leverage the GAP framework to develop an inclusive climate action plan that will be impactful, efficient, and effective within varying geological and socio-economic regions.

Fourth, technological innovations must be introduced to capture climate change risks, suggest mitigations and adaptative opportunities, and protect sustainable energy resources.

Finally, whether local or national, climate adaptation decision-making groups must unfailingly incorporate women to ensure diverse and informed representation. Failure to do so will result in policies and practices that will put all Africans, women and children foremost, at risk of loss of lives and livelihoods.

When women are empowered to have a voice in discussions to ensure a sustainable, climate-resilient, and climate-smart future, the African continent will flourish.