Introduction

Digital technologies such as mobile phones and tablets are crucial elements of most people’s everyday lives and play a key role in today’s communication. As they increasingly interweave with our analog world, the concept of postdigitality gains importance. The postdigital turn builds on the so-called digital revolution (Pepperell & Punt, 2000, p. 2) but negates the binary distinction between the analog and digital in favor of an emphasis on the intertwined nature of humans and technology and how they influence each other. The introduction of the concept of “postdigital” thus aims to “adequately capture contemporary human existence” (Jandrić et al., 2018, p. 894).

Especially through mobile messaging services such as WhatsApp, Signal, and Facebook Messenger contemporary communicative practices have been transformed and new questions have emerged in relation to the ways we communicate. These internet-based and digital services offer the possibility to communicate with people around the world in diverse and time-saving ways. They not only allow the sending of text messages and emojis but also synchronous or asynchronous communication via voice or video calls and messages.

Although this postdigital turn can be strongly observed in our everyday life, both in leisure and work contexts, research methods that rely on these technologies and developments have so far evolved comparatively slowly. Lupton (2021) shows that synchronous communication options such as voice or video calls are increasingly utilized in qualitative research, especially since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Nevertheless, asynchronous digital communication methods are still rarely used in qualitative research.

This chapter introduces the new method of Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages (ANAs), which was developed by the author in the framework of an ongoing international research project in education science (Kleinlein, 2021a). The method emerged from the above-mentioned observations and in response to the postdigital condition that characterizes our time. Accordingly, ANAs can be understood as a postdigital, qualitative research method that makes use of the opportunities offered by modern technologies, such as asynchronous digital communication features. While the ANA approach brings many opportunities and benefits to contemporary research, potential challenges must also be addressed and reflected upon.

The following sections contain a detailed description of the method and associated methodological considerations, followed by a critical reflection on the facilitating and constraining effects of its use. To draw a clear and concise picture of the method’s potential fields of use, ANAs are distinguished from other qualitative interview methods. The last section of the chapter illustrates the practical implementation of the method by presenting an ongoing international research project that focuses on the inclusive schooling practices of teachers from a systematizing and transcultural perspective.

COVID-19 and the Ongoing and Increasing Need for Digital Tools

Media communication has become, with the emergence and widespread use of personal portable Internet technologies (e.g., smartphones, tablets, and smart watches) as well as the increasing connectivity of more and more devices and items, so profoundly embedded in people’s everyday life that it permeates a plethora of daily routines, practices, and social interactions. (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 230)

The technological developments mentioned above were already available during the past decade (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019), but their use has substantially intensified since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. To avoid further spread of the novel coronavirus, many countries introduced restrictions on traveling, or even leaving one’s apartment. Face-to-face interactions were to be limited to the absolute minimum in order to prevent infection. Digital communication thus became even more important and one of the few means available for interacting with family and friends, colleagues and partners, and for keeping up-to-date with recent legislation, declarations, and developments around the world. Digital tools for instant messaging (e.g., WhatsApp and Telegram), social media channels (e.g., Instagram and Facebook), video conference platforms (e.g., Zoom and Microsoft Teams), and other interactive online platforms (e.g., Moodle and email) consequently gained even greater importance (International Commission on the Futures of Education, 2020).

The Need for Qualitative and Quantitative Digital Research Methods

Even though the use and importance of mobile and digital technologies have significantly intensified over the past few years, the development of digital research methods is still relatively slow (Thimm & Nehls, 2019). Despite the fact that digital technologies have become an integral part of our everyday lives, many disciplines still predominantly base their research methods on traditional data collection through in-person interviews and observations. This is not only because classical research procedures have long proven successful and earned established legitimacy, but also because “the methodological literature on [virtual qualitative research] techniques is limited” (Roberts et al., 2021, p. 10).

Nonetheless, the last several years have seen a gradual transformation of the research field through increasing use of internet-based research methods (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019) that enable participation from around the world and the inclusion of people who tend to otherwise be excluded or overlooked in research. The pandemic, however, strengthened the need for new and adapted digital methods. In-person observations and interviews, as well as field visits, became impossible due to travel bans, curfews, and elevated security measures to mitigate the spread of the virus (Roberts et al., 2021). Consequently, the pandemic led numerous researchers to engage in digital research methods, be it because planned data collection methods could no longer be carried out or because the unpredictable nature of the pandemic required more crisis-proof methodical approaches (Lupton, 2021). It was not just in-person methods that were shifted into the digital sphere—such as by conducting interviews online instead of face-to-face—but the development of completely new digital methods also became more important.

To take a closer look at digital research methods, I will begin by distinguishing between quantitative and qualitative approaches. In quantitative research, digital methods such as online surveys, tests, and measurements are already used frequently. While an even broader use of internet-based research methods is conceivable in quantitative research too, the potential of digital methods in qualitative research is particularly far from fully exploited. In terms of research fields, it is also evident that “sociology has been slow relative to other disciplines in adopting these new technologies” (Sugie, 2018, p. 459). This is particularly apparent as the situation challenges social scientific research in two unique ways.

Firstly, research in the social sciences relies strongly on qualitative research methods. These are generally more difficult to transfer into a digital format, as they aim to capture a more detailed and open picture of social realities than quantitative approaches. Moreover, the social distancing rules that came with the pandemic had an immense impact on social interaction. As social interaction and communication play a crucial role in the social sciences, this development also resulted in challenges to research in this field. Consequently, within weeks of the pandemic’s outbreak, not only the shape of social interactions changed but also how they could be investigated. In this regard, Lupton (2021, p. 1) points out that “[i]solation measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 means that social researchers who are used to doing fieldwork have had to consider ways for avoiding in-person interactions by using mediated forms […] that will achieve similar ends.”

Secondly, the immense technological developments that have (re-)shaped our social lives over the past few years have presented a further challenge to social scientific research. The new concept of postdigitalism emerged out of a reality in which “[w]e are increasingly no longer in a world where digital technology and media is separate, virtual, ‘other’ to a ‘natural’ human and social life” (Jandrić et al., 2018, p. 893). While the concept is complex and its definitions vary across disciplines (Taffel, 2016), it generally describes the entanglement of digital technologies and human realities that can be observed in recent times (Jandrić et al., 2018). Alongside these postdigital developments, new and fast-growing research fields have developed that traditional research methods are not necessarily able to investigate. Thus, the “postdigital challenge posts [sic] significant epistemic questions” (Jandrić et al., 2018, p. 895) that have not yet been comprehensively studied. Accordingly, Sugie (2018), Kaufmann, and Peil (2020) call for engagement with the latest multimedia features and development of contemporary approaches that allow for investigation of this vast and rapidly growing research field. Simultaneously, reflecting upon the “postdigital choice: using the technology most suitable to the job, rather than automatically ‘defaulting’ to the latest ‘new media’ device” (Cramer, 2015, p. 21) is crucial. It is therefore of the utmost importance that we develop meaningful digital research methods that are particularly applicable to the social sciences and to a qualitative research paradigm.

Mobile Technologies in Qualitative Social Science Research

Mobile technologies offer particularly promising opportunities for qualitative social science research. Mobile phones facilitate a wide range of options for research that have so far mainly been exploited by quantitative research, while “the full potential of smartphones in qualitative research has not yet been realized” (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 229). Since mobile technologies and smartphones are characterized by their “dialogical, instantaneous, and multimedia capacities” (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 230), they hold great value for qualitative research in the social sciences.

Mobile phones and other mobile technologies allow a growing number of people worldwide easy access to the Internet (Roser et al., 2015). As “in recent years the availability of Broadband communication has expanded rapidly and is now widespread” (Debenham, 2007, p. 6), social media, mobile messaging apps, and other applications for communicating with people around the world has for many become a regular part of social interaction (Lannutti, 2017; Roser et al., 2015). Already in 1998, Negroponte went so far as to say that “being digital will be noticed only by its absence, not its presence” (Jandrić et al., 2018, p. 893), which is becoming increasingly true. We thus live in a postdigital era where digital technologies form a regular and indispensable part of people’s everyday lives and experiences.

With regard to communication, digital technologies are especially intriguing and attractive as they facilitate “conversations with people who are not physically present, […] while we are on the move and simultaneously engaged in other activities” (Tagg & Lyons, 2022, p. 1). Building on this, mobile-based means of communication can take place on different time scales: synchronized communication uses formats such as video and phone calls, whereas emails, texts, and voice messages can be used for asynchronous conversations between people in different parts of the world. Although this distinction between asynchronous and synchronous communication practices can help structure this complex field, it must be acknowledged that such clear distinctions are not always useful. Especially in light of postdigital theory, “binaries such as online/offline, virtual/real, old/new media, digital/analogue, technical/natural” (Macgilchrist, 2021, p. 660) tend to blur, and entangled forms gain relevance.

In everyday life, the variety of synchronous and asynchronous mobile communication options is already much appreciated. However, only a few of these have so far been deployed in research. In general, it can be noted that, even though interviews are one of the most traditional and widely used research methods for qualitative data collection (e.g., Braun et al., 2017), interview-based research so far rarely employs mobile and internet-based communication options. Consideration of multiple forms of interviews is thus particularly interesting and promising.

The Unexplored Vastness of Internet-Based Interview Methods

At least eight different formats are conceivable within the frame of internet-based interview methods. These can be classified in terms of the time and data aspects upon which they are based (see Fig. 10.1). As mentioned above, internet-based communication can take place synchronously or asynchronously, and it can also take entangled and ambiguous forms. For a general, simplifying structure, we can make a broad distinction between two time formats: synchronous and asynchronous interview methods (ibid.). Regarding the data format, there are at least three means of communication that are particularly relevant for internet-based interviews: text, audio, and video. As a result, text-based methods, audio-based methods, and video-based methods can be distinguished from one another. Additionally, these three (or even more) communicative practices can also be jointly deployed in interview formats, which leads to the consideration of mixed-media methods. Figure 10.1 provides a structured overview of some of the possible formats and exemplarily indicates specific methods, such as ANAs (this chapter), MIMIs (Mobile Instant Messaging Interviews; Kaufmann & Peil, 2020), and IM (Instant Messenger) interviews (Lannutti, 2017).

Fig. 10.1
A table of systematization of internet-based interview methods. It has 2 columns and 4 rows. The column headers are Synchronous Interview Methods and Asynchronous Interview Methods. The row headers are text-based methods, audio-based methods, video-based methods, and mixed-media methods.

Systematization of internet-based interview methods

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Starting with the synchronous internet-based interview methods, one of the first to be mentioned is Instant Messenger (IM or T-SIM, see Fig. 10.1), as it was deployed rather early on (Lannutti, 2017). IM interviews are text-based and can be conducted with IM tools such as WhatsApp or Signal. The method requires the interviewer and the interviewee to be online at the same time, but it allows them “to interact while each is in a location that is safe, convenient and comfortable (and quiet!)” (Lannutti, 2017, p. 238).

Further synchronous internet-based interview methods are for example based on audio (A-SIM, see Fig. 10.1) or video (V-SIM). Internet-based telephone or video interviews can be conducted via IM tools such as WhatsApp, FaceTime, or Zoom and have been met with increasing interest since the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic (Lupton, 2021). As the pandemic forced many researchers to abandon face-to-face interviews, the conversion of pre-planned in-person interviews into telephone or video interviews enabled a rather simple adaption of the data collection method (e.g., Gray et al., 2020; Oliffe et al., 2021; Tungohan & Catungal, 2022).

The last type of synchronous internet-based interview methods I wish to mention here are mixed-media methods (M-SIM, see Fig. 10.1), such as the Mobile Instant Messaging Interview (MIMI). MIMIs (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020) go beyond the possibilities of IM interviewing “by exploiting some of the unique communication and multimedia features offered by mobile instant messaging apps” (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 229). More specifically, MIMI participants are encouraged to answer by using the variety of media formats provided by IM tools. Participants can send pictures, audio, and videos as well as links, or even their location (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020). In their study, Kaufmann and Peil (ibid.) asked participants to reply within 15 minutes, which then led to dialogues of about 10 to 20 minutes; in this format, MIMIs can be considered a synchronous interview method based on mixed-media data.

Nevertheless, a more asynchronous realization of this approach is also conceivable (M-AIM, see Fig. 10.1). This way, participants would not be under pressure to answer the interviewer within a tight timeframe but instead at a time convenient to them. The multiple communication and media formats that are offered by most IM apps can then be used by participants and contribute to a comprehensive data collection with a mixed-media approach. While this method opens up many new and innovative opportunities for data collection and research, at the time of writing, I have found no study that makes use of this particular approach.

Another asynchronous internet-based interview method is the email interview. This was one of the first internet-based interview methods, reliant on text-based communication (T-AIM, see Fig. 10.1). The email interview has already been widely used for many years (Bampton & Cowton, 2002) and became even more popular during the pandemic (Dahlin, 2021). Nevertheless, the challenges presented by text-based interview methods are often highlighted, for instance that problems “might arise for interviewees who are less able to explain themselves in writing” (Ratislavová & Ratislav, 2014, p. 457).

With the exception of email interviews, asynchronous audio- or mixed-media methods are generally strongly underrepresented in the research field as compared to synchronous interview methods. Building upon this overview of internet-based interview methods, and based on the relevant literature in the field (e.g., Baur & Blasius, 2019; Boase & Humphreys, 2018; Braun et al., 2017; Dahlin, 2021; Lupton, 2021; Roberts et al., 2021), we can distinguish five main trends:

  1. 1.

    Over the last decade, internet-based research has become increasingly relevant and contributed to a transformation of the field (e.g., Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019).

  2. 2.

    Internet-based quantitative research is more advanced than its qualitative counterpart, so the potential has not yet been fully exploited (e.g., Kaufmann & Peil, 2020).

  3. 3.

    Social scientific research in particular is lagging behind other disciplines regarding the use of internet-based methods (e.g., Sugie, 2018).

  4. 4.

    The COVID-19 pandemic reinforced the development and need for internet-based research methods, including for the social sciences (e.g., Lupton, 2021).

  5. 5.

    Synchronous internet-based interview methods are increasingly used, whereas asynchronous interview methods are still rare (e.g., Roberts et al., 2021).

Following these observations, the potential of asynchronous methods such as audio-, video-, or mixed-media-based interviews (A-Aim, V-AIM, M-AIM, see Fig. 10.1) has not yet been exhausted. This is partly due to the fast technological developments of IM tools. The video messaging function of Telegram, for instance, was only added in 2017 (Telegram Team, 2017), and the voice messaging feature of WhatsApp was added in 2013 (Olson, 2013). Since then, the voice messaging feature in particular has been extensively used in peoples’ everyday lives and has “become part of our communicative repertoires, [of] the set of resources through which we make meaning” (Tagg & Lyons, 2022, p. 2). Nevertheless, they have so far barely been used in research, a potential that will be explored in the following sections.

Audio Messages as a Tool for Qualitative (and Quantitative) Research

Several means of communication can be subsumed within the frame of audio-based asynchronous interview methods. Possible examples are audio messages, voicemails, voice messages, and voice recordings. Yet, these are not necessarily internet-based. The term ‘voicemail’, for example, describes “a phone message recorded by someone when you [the recipient] do not answer their call” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2022), and recordings are generally understood as “speech, music, or moving pictures that have been recorded to be listened to or watched later” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2022). Neither term refers necessarily to internet-based communication but goes back to earlier technologies such as answering and dictation machines.

The terms “voice messages” and “audio messages,” however, usually refer to the new internet-based technological function that can be found in IM tools such as WhatsApp or Threema (Staudacher & Kaiser-Grolimund, 2016). In what follows, these terms are thus used interchangeably. They refer to recorded messages of audio (typically a voice) with the purpose of delivering information to another (or multiple) person/s. Audio messages allow users to elaborate extensively on a topic in a way that is time-saving and facilitates asynchronous, oral communication (e.g., Hector, 2017; Howind, 2020). Consequently, audio messages are especially used to explain, ask, or describe something relatively complex: “you will find people sending WhatsApp voice messages to friends and family – some very short and practical, others exhaustingly long descriptions of daily routine or personal encounters” (United Nations Development Programme, 2018, p. 7). The format enables users to express something that could be misunderstood if written, or that would take a long time to write down (Howind, 2020; Schlobinski & Siever, 2018). Audio messages thus have similar advantages to the telephone or video calls, but offer the possibility of communicating asynchronously and automatically storing the shared information. These characteristics are especially intriguing considering possible time differences and busy schedules of the interacting partners (Tagg & Lyons, 2022).

Further advantages and peculiarities of audio messages are of particular interest to social science research: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), which was already using audio messages in research in 2018, points out that “[v]oice messages not only allow more to be said in less time, they also facilitate the inclusion of illiterate people in the survey” (UNDP, 2018, p. 7). Thus, the format strengthens participation and inclusion of people who have difficulties reading and writing. Building upon the experiences of the UNDP (2018) with WhatsApp voice messages in a survey with Syrian refugees and host communities in Lebanon, we can identify further aspects with particular relevance for the design of similar methodical approaches. These ten benefits of voice-based WhatsApp surveys are summarized in Fig. 10.2.

Fig. 10.2
A listicle depicts the WhatsApp survey's 10 benefits. Some are: Allow more to be said in less time, facilitate the inclusion of illiterate people, limit the power and interference of the researcher in people’s stories, and choose when to reply to the question and in what format and length.

Benefits of voice-based WhatsApp surveys (based on UNDP, 2018)

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Even though these advantages make voice-based WhatsApp surveys appear very promising, the format also harbors potential issues. With WhatsApp in particular, data security issues must be considered and may lead to the disqualification of this IM tool. Within both the UNDP (2018) and Kaufmann & Peil (2020) studies, the decision to rely on WhatsApp for research purposes was intensively evaluated and ultimately found to be best. However, the use of WhatsApp or other popular IM tools may not be an option for other research topics and objectives. Since common and more data-sensitive survey platforms—such as LimeSurvey, SoSci Survey, and SurveyMonkey—do not yet offer audio or video message features, the use of other, new programs is necessary for conducting audio messages for qualitative research. While some research projects may require the development of custom-built programs (see e.g., Gergle & Hargittai, 2018; Sugie, 2018), ready-made solutions can also be used if suitable. One, steadily improving, such tool that can be used for this purpose is Phonic (2020). Phonic was developed in 2020, partly for research purposes, and allows researchers as well as participants to work with audio and video messages. Moreover, Phonic adheres to the data protection guidelines required to conduct privacy-sensitive research (Phonic, 2020).

The Invention of Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages

This chapter introduces a new audio-based asynchronous interview method (A-AIM, see Fig. 10.1). Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages (ANAs) are an internet-based method for conducting interviews unrestricted by the time and location of interviewee and interviewer. The asynchronicity and digitality of the method allow for a highly flexible, anonymous, and resource-efficient collection of qualitative audio data from participants around the world, rendering it highly promising for qualitative research in the social sciences. ANAs can be used with popular IM tools such as WhatsApp or Signal as well as with more data-sensitive internet-based platforms such as Phonic (2020). Generally speaking, ANA is a rather unstructured and open interview method that aims to generate extensive descriptions and narratives from the respondents. Consequently, the method shows characteristics of narrative interviews (Schütze, 1983) as well as problem-centered interviews (Witzel, 2000). Similarities between ANAs and problem-centered interviews include that both approaches allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions to collect more detailed information on specific topics that the researcher is interested in (Witzel, 2000). Further, the similarities between ANAs and narrative interviews are especially interesting in that both methods are only roughly structured, enabling interviewees to intensively elaborate on an open question or narrative impulse without being interrupted or directed by the interviewer (Küsters, 2019). Building on this, ANAs can be seen as a special form of internet-based narrative interview. Nevertheless, ANAs also overlap with other well-established interview methods, such as expert interviews and guideline-based interviews, depending on their specific implementation. This facilitates flexible usage and continuous development of the method.

In general, ANAs can be used as a data collection method within a wide variety of methodological and theoretical fields. While the narrative approach especially invites reconstructive analyses, other methodological approaches are also possible. The last section of this chapter exemplifies the practical implementation of ANAs within a grounded theory-based project, but also content analysis, thematic analysis, objective hermeneutics, and the documentary method are approaches that could be considered to analyze data conducted by ANAs. A critical reflection on specific research aims, questions, and the suitability of data collection and analysis approaches is thus crucial for the design of a comprehensive research concept (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020). In what follows, peculiarities and characteristics of the use of ANAs in the social sciences are presented in more detail to outline the possible benefits and limitations of this new and innovative data collection method (see Fig. 10.3).

Fig. 10.3
2 Flowcharts of benefits and challenges of asynchronous narrative audio messages. 1. Benefits list in-depth qualitative data. Anonymity or pseudonymity. Flexibility and resource efficiency. 2. Challenges list Data. Sample. Ethics. They further classify.

Possible benefits and challenges of asynchronous narrative audio-messages

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Possible Benefits of Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages

Due to their asynchronous, digital, and audio-based character, ANAs hold many opportunities for qualitative research in the social sciences. Overall, their three main benefits can be attributed to opportunities regarding flexibility and resource efficiency, anonymity or pseudonymity, and in-depth qualitative data. These are presented in more detail below to enable a more comprehensive understanding of the method and its potential field of use.

Flexibility and Resource Efficiency

One of the main aspects that substantially distinguishes ANAs from the interview methods mentioned previously is their flexibility and resource efficiency. As the importance of methods not requiring physical attendance has grown, especially in the context of COVID-19, the possibility for flexible participation is one of the main advantages of ANAs. Other crises, such as the war in Ukraine, closed national borders, unsafe environments, or natural and ecological disasters also heighten the importance of crisis-resistant research methods that facilitate the participation of “hard-to-reach, resource-poor, and mobile groups” (Sugie, 2018, p. 485). Using ANAs can thus be viewed as a participatory research approach that enables the inclusion of groups and individuals who are often inadvertently excluded or overlooked in research. Especially with responsive and widespread devices such as mobile phones, the use of ANAs allows for great flexibility and resource efficiency of both time and location for participants as well as for researchers.

Regarding the flexibility and resource efficiency of time, ANAs allow participants to contribute to the survey whenever they wish, whenever time allows, and a sufficient internet connection is available. Consequently, participants can decide to read the question and reflect on it before answering a few minutes, hours, or even days later. Additionally, participants can record their audio message spontaneously whenever they have an idea or remember something they wish to share in the survey. This is possible because researchers and participants do not need to agree upon a time and date for the conduction of the interview as they do when conducting interviews in person or via Zoom (Gray et al., 2020). Moreover, the method permits not only flexible and time-saving participation but also data collection: faster recruitment times are possible as no appointments need to be agreed upon with possible participants. Furthermore, due to the asynchronous collection format, the interviewer does not need to be present during data collection. As numerous people can take part in the survey simultaneously without the interviewer being present, a vast amount of qualitative data can be collected with relatively little time and fewer resources. In terms of time-flexibility, the asynchronous format of ANAs (see Fig. 10.1) thus offers major advantages for researchers and participants.

ANAs also offer several benefits for participants and researchers in terms of the flexibility and resource efficiency of location. By facilitating participation from anywhere around the world where the platform is accessible and a sufficient data connection is ensured, ANAs allow researchers and participants to overcome many geographic limitations. Differences in time and location thus do not pose obstacles to the collection of rich, qualitative data, enabling researchers “to overcome the challenge of physical distance [which] may make some studies possible that would not otherwise be within their grasp” (Lannutti, 2017, p. 238). By using ANAs, both researchers and participants can save significant amounts of valuable resources such as time, money, and energy that would otherwise be required for travel and scheduling.

Anonymity or Pseudonymity

Another advantage of ANAs is the possibility of pseudonymous or even anonymous participation. Fully anonymous participation means that participants are unidentifiable in every way. This is difficult (but not impossible) to achieve in qualitative research, since individuals are often asked to share personal or professional experiences which cannot be fully anonymized. Pseudonymity, however, involves replacing specific names and locations that could indicate information about the speaker, protecting the participant’s privacy. While in-person interviews require the physical attendance of both the interviewer and interviewee, making anonymous participation nearly impossible, internet-based methods allow both, the participant and the researcher, to keep their distance if required or desired (Gray et al., 2020).

For the participant, anonymous participation is certainly of great value as research conducted with ANAs enables them to participate without sharing any personal information such as their names, email addresses, mobile numbers, or other contact details. This can especially be of major importance in research projects addressing restricted, forbidden, or taboo topics such as political and sexual orientation or a criminal past. The anonymous online participation of interviewees thus opens up new opportunities to investigate delicate or even problematic research topics.

On the other hand, ANAs also allow for the anonymity of the researcher. Although this option may be interesting or beneficial in certain projects, it must be critically examined and necessitates ethical reflection. As it is crucial to provide research participants with sufficient information about the background of the study, researcher anonymity is barely acceptable. In addition, it should be noted that the anonymity of the researcher may lead to difficulties in recruiting and engaging participants. Participant anonymity in general thus opens up productive research possibilities, whereas researcher anonymity must be treated very carefully and critically.

In-depth Qualitative Data

The third main advantage of ANAs can be attributed to the possibility to collect in-depth qualitative data while simultaneously benefiting from the aspects mentioned above. While data collected with ANAs cannot be considered equivalent to data collected through in-person or synchronous interview methods (see Fig. 10.1), the former can be regarded as in-depth qualitative data with great potential for qualitative research in the social sciences. This benefit can be divided into two relevant perspectives, namely data quality and data storage.

Regarding data quality, the method is associated with many benefits. As audio messages are already a regular means of communication for many, the format is likely to be familiar to the majority of participants. The possibility to participate in the survey at any time, spontaneously, and in suitable situations with no distractions not only enables flexibility of participation but can also support the collection of valuable qualitative data. Moreover, due to the absence of the interviewer during the conduction of ANAs, fewer interviewer effects may occur as compared to synchronous interview settings (UNDP, 2018). Further, since audio messages can give the impression of “thinking aloud” or talking to oneself, ANAs can allow for particularly interesting insights into participants’ thoughts and ideas (Lombardinilo, 2022). On the other hand, the absence of the interviewer also means that the latter is unable to elicit contextual information by being physically or temporally present. While the interviewer consequently has little to no effect on the interviewee or their situation, they are also unable to observe the participant’s context for additional information. The interviewee is therefore asked to express all necessary information in a precise and detailed manner in order to foster an understanding of the interview context for the participant. An accompanying questionnaire to collect the participants’ context data can also be of great value.

Another important feature is data storage. Depending on what online tool is chosen for data collection (e.g., WhatsApp, Phonic), conducting ANAs is relatively easy and all the data is collected and stored in one place, from where it can be easily saved and transferred to other devices and formats. At the same time, careful reflections on challenges—particularly around data security and practical considerations—must be made.

Possible Challenges of Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages

While the last few paragraphs give an extensive overview of the advantages and possibilities of ANAs, there are of course also challenges and disadvantages that must be addressed to ensure proper data collection. Sugie (2018, p. 458) shows that there are “strengths and challenges of smartphones as data collection tools among disadvantaged and hard-to-reach groups” which thus also impact on the conduction of ANAs. The three main challenges that need careful reflection address aspects pertaining to data, the sample, and ethics.

Considerations Regarding Data

Building upon the aspects of data quality and storage mentioned above, a well-suited internet-based data collection tool is of the utmost importance. In the decision-making process, the assurance of data security and data quality is of major importance for the success of the research project.

In general, data security measures do not strongly differ between analogue and digital data collection methods (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019). Nevertheless, it is crucial to conduct a critical examination of the regulations regarding the data handling of the chosen internet-based tool. Thimm & Nehls (2019) point out that there are often significant uncertainties around data ownership, data control, and data analysis, and major concerns arise as large corporations use digital analysis methods to profit from the data. Consequently, ethical and data security considerations must be taken very seriously, especially when sensitive or personal details are involved. These concerns may therefore lead to the exclusion of applications such as WhatsApp in favor of internet-based options that promise more data security. One option is the utilization of the new and fast-growing tool Phonic (2020). Phonic offers a variety of data collection means such as audio, video, and questionnaire formats and is currently one of the very few (or only) providers that facilitate voice and video recordings of both participants and researchers. In the context of the research project presented below, Phonic has also committed itself to the EU data protection regulation, thus fulfilling strict security measures. To ensure the data security of participants, researchers must in general critically examine the provider’s data handling regulations.

A second aspect that can be challenging with regard to data is the assurance of data quality. Since researchers are not present when conducting ANAs, careful preparation and advance-testing of the tool and the questions proves crucial. Not only should accessibility and technology be extensively examined in advance; the suitability and coherence of the questions must also be ensured. While synchronous and in-person interviews allow interviewees and interviewers to easily ask questions that deepen their understanding of what has been said, this is not possible with ANAs. For this reason, researchers must be precise when formulating interview questions, avoiding inquiries or narration impulses that are too long or complex so that participants do not feel overwhelmed. If the questions are not easy to understand, there is a strong risk of either a high drop-out rate (because participants cannot easily ask for clarification) or that the answers do not meet the research objective (and ad hoc clarification is not possible). In both cases, the data quality would be questionable and research aims may not be met. The interview questions must therefore be particularly clear and concise and ideally lead to extensive and detailed answers from participants. To this end, pre-testing the survey with a heterogeneous sample to assure data quality can be of great value.

Considerations Regarding the Sample

The second set of challenges pertains to the research sample. Issues of recruitment and engagement in particular have major impacts on the research process and its outcome. However, Roberts et al. (2021, p. 2) state that only a “limited body of work addresses recruitment and establishing rapport.” In what follows, recruitment as well as engagement are discussed in more detail.

In terms of recruitment, the consequences to be considered pertain to the distribution method, the online format, and language accessibility. It is necessary to critically reflect upon who can and will truly be reached by online surveys, as “[q]uestions remain regarding sample selection, representativeness, and the participation of diverse groups, such as resource-poor and less technologically skilled individuals” (Sugie, 2018, p. 459).

Various distribution methods can be applied to recruit participants, and the choice is strongly connected to the chosen internet-based data collection tool and the envisaged target group. Self-recruitment, the recruitment of personal contacts, and snowballing are some possibilities. The study can be advertised in diverse channels, both analogue and digital, such as via bulletin boards, flyers, social media, and mailing lists. It must nevertheless be noted that even if analogue recruitment is carried out, the online format of the study itself may lead to the exclusion of certain target groups. Following Wagner-Schelewsky and Hering (2019), people who are generally more responsive to online formats are, compared to the total population, younger, wealthier, and more educated, and men are still more involved than women. Moreover, internationally, there are also major disparities regarding Internet use and responsiveness to online surveys. Reflection on the effects of the digital divide (e.g., Ragnedda & Muschert, 2013) and the availability and cost of technical devices, the internet, and the accessibility of specific platforms is therefore important (Weiß et al., 2019). Also, the format of audio messages might have a noteworthy impact on the recruitment process (Howind, 2020). Similarly, the language of recruitment and of the survey can include or exclude certain groups or people. These exclusionary, inclusionary, and participatory effects of the recruitment process are, especially in the context of social science research, particularly crucial.

Another challenge that is directly connected to and merged with recruitment is engagement. Engagement can be distinguished into engagement before, during, and after participation. As the asynchronous interview format does not necessarily support the establishment of rapport, ensuring participant engagement poses a major challenge (Dahlin, 2021; Lannutti, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021).

Before participation, recruitment has already taken place and is followed by the necessity to engage the participants. Before participants get to the actual survey, they already have to overcome several hurdles (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019), such as reading important background information, understanding the explanations given, and signing the data security declarations. Potential participants must therefore actively decide whether they wish to participate in a survey, and a non-response is easy and convenient. Due to its asynchronous character, researchers cannot directly support this process and are thus challenged to motivate and engage potential participants in the absence of personal contact. Careful preparation and testing of the survey as well as easily accessible and appealing background material can thus be of great importance. Possible formats include explanatory videos, graphics and pictures, motivating introductions, and short answers to frequently asked questions (see Kleinlein, 2021a). If this pre-engagement process is successful, it is followed by the need to engage during participation. As this process is also asynchronous, the researcher will be absent during participation and, consequently, participants can easily drop out during the survey stage due to lack of time, interest, or motivation (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019). Questions can also be easily skipped over or omitted, as “researchers do not have any control over the participant’s response behaviour” (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 238). The drop-out and non-response rates must also be reflected in the outcome of the study. The third aspect of engagement follows the participation stage. After contributing to the survey, it is possible to ask participants to be involved further, such as for follow-up questions or other related future communications. Engagement after participation is not necessarily required, but consideration and possible inclusion of it in the preparation stage might be helpful later (e.g., for data analysis).

Considerations Regarding Ethics

Even though, in general, “literature tends to frame the ethical considerations of virtual qualitative research as comparable to those of in-person research” (Roberts et al., 2021, p. 3), this issue must not be underestimated. Following the considerations, benefits, and challenges mentioned above, the format of ANAs necessitates addressing further ethical questions. It is especially crucial concerning the characteristics of digitality and asynchronicity.

Regarding digitality, Roberts (2021, p. 3) points out that “virtual methods may […] present new privacy concerns, as researchers may be intruding into participants’ personal space, especially if participants are in their own homes and do not use a virtual background or have access to headphones.” Researchers are thus urged to reflect on the impact of the digital format (Ragnedda & Muschert, 2013) and on ways to prevent negative effects on the participants. In addition, the asynchronicity of ANAs should also be backed by ethical considerations. As the interviewer and interviewee are not necessarily present at the same time and there is no need for a shared space, some research topics may not be appropriate and there is a need to reflect on the extent to which the given answers are meaningful in the research context (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020). In general, the new communication formats that digital and technical innovations facilitate must be critically reflected upon, as “[t]here is growing concern over the actual, concrete, social, and material influence of the digital, which stands in contrast to the tendency to view it as ‘virtual’, ethereal, and without ‘real’ consequences” (Jandrić et al., 2018, p. 895).

Simultaneously, participants may also benefit from the digital and asynchronous format of ANAs. As anonymity can be widely maintained, it adheres to a high standard of flexibility, security can be ensured, and dropping out or failing to respond is particularly easy for participants. Accordingly, ethical deliberations must be taken seriously, and the appropriateness of research tools and topics must be critically reflected upon in order to contribute positively to the projects’ quality and outcome. The tool presented by Roberts et al. (2021, p. 10) is a helpful guide for these reflections, as it “highlights practical (e.g., software) as well as ethical considerations, and provides recommendations for addressing these considerations.”

Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages in Practice

Building upon this methodical and methodological introduction to the method in the previous sections, an insight into the practical implementation of ANAs is provided below. The first section offers general practical notes for preparing the conduction of ANAs, while the second illustrates selected aspects of ANAs through an ongoing international research project in the field of teacher education.

Preparing Research with ANAs: Technological Considerations

Certain practical and technological considerations must first be addressed to ensure trouble-free and smooth data collection when conducting ANAs in research. In general, the aspects mentioned above and summarized in Fig. 10.3 must be jointly evaluated in the preparation of an ANA-based study, as must the decision-making process as to which internet-based data collection tool is deemed appropriate. To support the preparation of ANA-based research, Figs. 10.4 and 10.5 illustrate the most relevant questions to be taken into account.

Fig. 10.4
A table of reflective questions for the choice of a suitable A N A tool. It has 3 columns and 3 rows with 3 sub rows. The row headers are flexibility and resource efficiency, anonymity or pseudonymity, and in-depth qualitative data. The third column has 2 options of yes and no.

Reflective questions for the choice of a suitable ANA-tool

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Fig. 10.5
A table of reflective questions for a suitable embedding of A N As in research projects. It has 3 columns and 3 rows. The row headers are data, sample, and ethics.

Reflective questions for a suitable embedding of ANAs in research projects

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The focus of Fig. 10.4 is on the potential benefits of ANAs as supported by tools. Since it is highly unlikely that any one tool will support all features, the researcher must assess which functions are required for the specific research subject. Hence, not all questions presented have to apply to a tool in order to be suitable for the conduction of ANAs; in fact, it is more important to reflect upon the questions in light of the particular research purpose, question, and target group in the project’s focus.

The focus of Fig. 10.5, on the other hand, is on possible challenges associated with how ANAs are conducted. As it is important to find “Strategies to Gain Participant Trust and Protect Privacy” (Sugie, 2018, p. 480), for instance, this must also be considered in the search for a suitable data collection tool (see “Security” in Fig. 10.5). Moreover, ANAs must be implemented in a research project in a way that targets people who understand the aim of the survey (see “Quality” in Fig. 10.5) and who are motivated to participate (see “Recruitment” in Fig. 10.5). Researchers should also draw attention to the design and structure of the survey in order to maintain participant motivation (see “Engagement” in Fig. 10.5). The possibility to take breaks during participation, or to see how many questions are still to come, are two examples (Wagner-Schelewsky & Hering, 2019). Alongside these reflections, ethical questions concerning the digital and asynchronous format (see Fig. 10.5) must also be addressed in order to allow for an appropriate embedding of the ANAs in the research project.

In order to decide which internet-based platform should be used to conduct ANAs in a specific research project, it is therefore necessary to reflect on the specific limitations and strengths that go along with certain tools. As mentioned above, apps such as WhatsApp are promising as “one of the most popular mobile messaging services worldwide” and “a free-of-charge service deemed very reliable and supporting a variety of input modes and attachment options” (Kaufmann & Peil, 2020, p. 234). While these benefits of flexibility and resource efficiency are highly positive, their lack of data security and anonymity or pseudonymity can be disadvantageous for some research projects. While other ready-made solutions such as Phonic are not yet as widely known as WhatsApp or Signal, and a hesitant attitude among participants and challenges regarding their engagement may be an issue, Phonic can offer clear advantages that are of major importance for certain research projects. The company has agreed to adhere to strict EU data-security measures, supports the gathering of in-depth qualitative data (e.g., different data formats, automated transcription, structured data storage), offers automated transcription, and can, due to its responsive design, be used on computers as well as on mobile devices. A practical example of the implementation of ANAs and conduction with Phonic is given in the following section.

An Example of Research with ANAs in an Ongoing Research Project

The international survey on Inclusive Schooling Practices of Teachers (InSpots) is part of an ongoing Ph.D. project in education science (Kleinlein, 2021a). The project addresses inclusive teaching as a cross-cultural challenge that teachers face. As structures, schools, teachers, and students are highly diverse and differ not only across cultures and countries but also within smaller contexts, practitioners all over the world have already developed a great variety of complex inclusive educational practices (Schallenberg-Diekmann, 2017). These build upon concepts of heterogeneity that are strongly influenced by context-sensitive sociocultural factors (Hummrich & Rademacher, 2013). Consequently, very different approaches have evolved. A qualitative, comprehensive, and transcultural analysis of these inclusive teaching practices is therefore highly intriguing, valuable, and of great importance to the further development of inclusive education. The need for cross-cultural research increases especially in light of current globalization and refugee movements that have led to a blurring of cultures and nations (Fritzsche, 2013).

Seeking to create cross-cultural insights into inclusive teaching practices, the InSpots survey asks teachers around the world in a qualitative online survey to share their experiences of teaching heterogeneous groups of learners. The study aims to (1) identify challenges that teachers perceive in their everyday teaching, (2) explore solutions and ideas that teachers have developed to overcome the challenges and to support their students, and (3) develop a system of inclusive teaching practices and interventions that can be applicable across contexts.

Methodologically, the research project relies on ‘Grounded Theory Methodology’ (Charmaz, 2006), which adopts an inductive and comparative approach to data and thus allows the researcher to react to the emphases and realities of the fields and actors examined. Following Charmaz (2006, p. 10) “[g]rounded theory serves as a way to learn about the worlds we study and a method for developing theories to understand them.” Building on this, the project aims to develop a theory or a system of inclusive schooling practices that is based on teacher experiences and knowledge and which provides adequate options to incorporating the emerging theory into current inclusive educational discourses.

The ANAs method was developed within the framework of this research project. Challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic in my cross-cultural qualitative research, it became necessary to develop a new data collection method that was appropriate for the situation. As audio messages are already strongly integrated into people’s everyday lives, this format appeared to be a promising option for short narrative interviews with teachers from contexts around the world. Due to the lack of data security in WhatsApp and other popular IM tools, another internet-based data collection tool had to be found. Phonic appeared to be well-suited as it offers diverse functions and had been developed only a few months before, with companies and researchers in mind. Since this USA-based tool fortunately complied with EU data security declarations, the InSpots project was able to use the full variety of the tool’s features when conducting ANAs.

Conducting ANAs with Phonic allows for an easily accessible, spontaneous, anonymous, and comprehensive collection of qualitative data from participants around the world (Kleinlein, 2021b). Within the framework of the InSpots project, teachers are asked to explain and describe experiences from their professional practice in narrative audio messages. A narrative impulse is given at the beginning in order to encourage the participating teachers to share their experiences of teaching heterogeneous groups of learners. The teachers are then invited to record asynchronous narrative audio-messages (or type in text). So far, it can be observed that participants make use of both options with a tendency toward the audio-format. This step is followed by a semi-open questionnaire collecting sociodemographic data about the participants and their working environments and conditions in order to better understand the contexts they are talking about.

As ANAs are a new method of qualitative data collection, and it was therefore impossible to build upon prior findings by other researchers regarding the use of the method, the preparation proved very challenging. In general, conducting ANAs with Phonic provides a wide range of advantages: Flexibility and Resource efficiency, Anonymity or Pseudonymity, as well as In-depth Qualitative Data (see Fig. 10.4) are all widely applicable and offer major benefits for researchers and participants. However, as this chapter intends to help researchers to plan their own research with ANAs, special attention must be paid to two important difficulties:

The first question in which limitations become clear is: “Is it easy, user-friendly, barrier-free, and timesaving to access the tool?” (see Fig. 10.4). Unlike tools such as WhatsApp or Telegram, which are in regular use by many possible participants, Phonic must be accessed by a link or QR-Code instead of a pre-installed app. This can be seen positively or negatively, as it can raise or lower the effort required to access the survey. Moreover, limitations to the question “Is data storage secure, transparent, and easily accessible?” become evident. While the data storage is secure and transparent (EU-GDPR), the accessibility of the collected data is still lacking in some necessary functions. At the moment, downloading the data and editing the survey is still complicated, rendering further development of the tool necessary.

Even though most of the potential benefits of ANAs are achieved using Phonic, it is important to pay particular attention to certain challenges. Recruitment and engagement proved to be especially challenging for the InSpots survey, which was a consequence of the asynchronous and digital format of ANAs (see Fig. 10.5). One limiting factor of the study is that it requires English communication skills. English was chosen on the basis that it is a world language, but many teachers around the world nevertheless do not speak English and are therefore unable to participate in the study, as are teachers who lack relatively stable internet access.

During the distribution of the study, wide support for the project was perceived, and the survey was shared through various channels (email, flyers, lectures, social media) all over the world by several stakeholders. Nevertheless, the response rates grew only slowly. This showed that it was difficult to engage people in the study strongly enough to prevent them from dropping out in the process that inevitably precedes the survey (reading the invitation, opening the link, reading the overview, accepting the data security declaration, answering the questions). Perhaps the lack of personal interaction is felt at this stage especially. As most people are more used to WhatsApp, for example, and know how it works, the latter might pose fewer challenges in this regard. To overcome the challenges mentioned above in the InSpots project, a welcoming website was constructed to share important information with potential participants (Kleinlein, 2021a). An explanation video by the researcher, graphics and pictures, a motivating introduction, and short answers to frequently asked questions are shared there to support participant engagement. It also seems important to keep the survey as short as possible to prevent participants from losing their engagement during participation. After the survey, participants are asked whether they would like to stay involved and, if so, share their email addresses.

Conclusion and Outlook

Overall, the data collection method of Asynchronous Narrative Audio-Messages offers a new and promising research approach for internet-based, asynchronous, qualitative data collection in the postdigital era. So far, the possibilities of these state-of-the-art research methods in the social sciences are far from fully harnessed, and besides ANAs many other internet-based data collection methods are conceivable and could provide a range of opportunities for diverse target groups and research objectives. A “conceptual clarification and differentiation of postdigital epistemologies and research practices—which is an urgent task for today’s postdigital scholarship” (Jandrić & Knox, 2022, p. 790) is therefore necessary. Further research and methodological reflection on the method of ANAs is also crucial for the method to become established.

Regarding the data format, audio-based methods such as ANAs facilitate the participation of people who have difficulties writing, video-based methods accommodate the participation of sign language speakers, and mixed-media methods allow the participant to flexibly use various means of communication (Hector, 2017). Regarding the time format, asynchronous interview methods are especially suitable for participants who are short of time, as it enables them to take part in the study whenever it suits them best. For researchers, asynchronous interview methods are promising as they remove the hurdles of time differences and scheduling difficulties. In general, synchronous as well as asynchronous internet-based interview methods enable the inclusion of people who are not available in person, be it because they live in remote areas, because of security concerns, or because of an ongoing pandemic. A myriad of factors may lead to the conclusion that online interviews are most suitable for the project in hand.

There are, therefore, many options and possibilities for internet-based qualitative data collection in the postdigital era. It is necessary to further develop and reflect upon these options so that new methods for qualitative researchers in the social sciences can emerge (e.g., Roberts et al., 2021). In this way, not only can modern technology be increasingly and meaningfully used; participation by a wide range of people who are hard to reach or difficult to involve and are consequently rarely included in research studies can also be improved.